speculation. Are they true weapons or rather part of the assemblage of tools and kitchen
utensils used by the mistress of a household?
Axe-heads were made of iron, and most are plain although the line between head and
blade may be emphasised by narrow grooves. However, decoration in silver and copper
does occur, and even gold, as seen on a rare eleventh-century axe-head from Botnhamn in
Norway, decorated in the Ringerike style (Viking to Crusader no. 114 ). Other axe-heads
are exceptional due to their small size (see Trotzig 1985 ) or unusual shape, a rare type
having a blade reduced to a narrow frame surrounding a cross-shaped figure (Paulsen
1956 : 66 – 8 ).
A typology based on Norwegian finds was published by J. Petersen in 1919 and
includes twelve types, A to M, distinguished by way of the head, the shape of the blade
and its cutting edge (Petersen 1919 : 36 – 47 ). The axe-heads range from light, slender
forms with more or less pronounced spurs on either side of the head to the well-known
broad-bladed battle axes, also with projecting spurs. The latter type resembles the
weapons featured in the Bayeux tapestry, and its basic shape continues in use well into
the medieval period.
Axe-heads with a long ‘helm’ at the back of the head were most likely introduced
from the eastern Baltic region (Hallinder 1986 : 47 ), whereas others with elongated,
often decorated blades and in some instances extremely long spurs at the head probably
originated in the area south of the Baltic (Paulsen 1956 : 156 – 67 ). These axes are very
likely prestige weapons, possibly even exotica, brought home by their owner or received
as gifts.
Similar to the swords and axes, spears were deposited in Viking Age burials, but have
also come to light in settlements and a few weapon deposits. Most of the spearheads
belong to heavy thrusting spears or lances. They were made of iron, some of them
pattern-welded or showing elaborate geometric or vegetal/zoomorphic designs in silver
and copper on the socket (Blindheim 1963 ; Horn Fuglesang 1980 ; Lehtosalo-Hilander
1985 ). The blades are usually leaf-shaped with rounded or angular shoulders towards the
socket and have a more or less pronounced rib along the centre. They were fitted to the
shafts by rivets; on one long and narrow type up to fifteen rivets formed an additional
decorative element along the socket. Based on evidence from burial finds the shafts were
up to 2 m long, and analysis of wood remains suggests that, for instance, ash was chosen
for strength and flexibility.
In his work on Viking Age weapons J. Petersen also arranged a classification of the
spearheads using the shape of the blade and the socket as basic diagnostic features.
Twelve types, A to M, were identified, of which type L differs from the others in having
short barbs and, instead of a socket, a long tang not unlike that of Viking Age arrow-
heads (Petersen 1919 : 22 – 36 ). A more accurate and detailed framework with a revision
of Petersen’s chronology, but also based on Norwegian material, has since been provided
by B. Solberg, whereas the late type M is treated by K. Creutz (Solberg 1984 ; for a
summary of recent typologies see Creutz 2003 : 28 – 34 ).
Bows and arrows form the fourth weapon group of the Viking Age. The first com-
plete longbow was recovered from Hedeby in northern Germany. No bowstring was
preserved but the wooden bow made of yewwood and measuring 192 cm in length
is intact (Graham-Campbell 1980 : 74 ). Unlike the wooden bows, arrowheads of iron
are common, occurring in burials and as single arrowheads in settlement contexts.
Mineralised remains of organic material corroded together with tightly packed
–– Anne Pedersen––