to play an important role in treasure finds and stray-finds collections already at the end
of the tenth century. This German silver stimulated trade and exchange relationships
especially in the Baltic region. As has been shown for the contemporary connections
with Frisia, it is not unlikely that traders from the German kingdom did travel in
Scandinavia and carry out transactions there. There is however no basis for an inter-
pretation of this state of affairs as evidence of the existence of a Hansa organisation
before the foundation of the Hanseatic League in the twelfth century. On the contrary
it is more likely that it is evidence of a continuation of a tenth-century pattern of
trade between the German kingdom and Scandinavia and regions beyond towards the
north-east.
As before in the ninth century and earlier, arms and armour as well as horse-riding
equipment are some of the most significant sources for our understanding of the
Continental connections of Scandinavia. The general Continental trends in weaponry are
well reflected in the Scandinavian material and there are large numbers of imported
weapons from Continental workshops. The relatively great importance of the axe as
an offensive weapon in Scandinavia, however, shows the relative independence and
originality of Scandinavian combat techniques. During the eleventh century arms
and armour in the north as well are internationalised and become almost universally
European. In comparison with ninth-century standards much more efficient cavalry
develops in the tenth century in the German kingdom, partly as a response to the
disastrous large-scale raids of the Magyars, who were established in the Carpathian Basin
at the very end of the ninth century. This is the beginning of the formation of the heavy
cavalry of the European type so characteristic of the Middle Ages. Unfortunately our
knowledge of armour in this period in Scandinavia is nil with the exception of the
probably rather outdated equipment in the Gjermundbu grave in Norway. Lances
become lighter but more efficient and the increase in mail-penetrating arrowheads tells
of a much wider use of mail coats and other types of armour. The new bridles, saddles,
stirrups and spurs that were developed (and partly taken over from the Magyars) gave
the equestrian warrior a new efficiency and control (Pedersen 1997 ). To what extent
taller horses for mounted combat were introduced in Scandinavia from the Continent is
yet uncertain. Importation is however most likely especially in the second half of the
tenth century, when King Harald (certainly with cavalry) fights back against German
troops in southern Jutland. An earlier importation of taller horses already in the ninth
century cannot be ruled out completely.
The new wave of urbanisation in Scandinavia beginning in the second half of the
tenth century (after the first which was connected with the rise of the emporia) is
closely connected with similar patterns in Saxony. Initiatives of the Church for a firm
ecclesiastical administration and of the secular royal power for the establishment of
dominion, separately or in union, play a key role notwithstanding the often very obvious
connection with the trade network.
The basic innovative ideas of the agricultural regime and the organisation of
estates were connected with the central parts of Carolingia, as pointed out above. These
innovations were also important in the German kingdom and the influence on later
Scandinavian development rather came from there. This is especially important in the
very active period of new formations of estates in the wake of the general power-political
restructure of the Danish kingdom in the late tenth and early eleventh centuries
(see below). In addition to the innovations mentioned in connection with the central
–– chapter 33: Scandinavia and the Continent––