of ninth-century al-Andalus should not be underestimated. Potentially at least, from the
850 s onwards the Umayyads could well have borne the brunt of continuous Scandina-
vian depredations similar to those endured by the Franks to the north – indeed, given
the initial success of the 844 expedition this prospect had almost certainly occurred to
the Vikings themselves. In contrast to the actions of the Carolingians, the rapid and
crushing response of the Muslims, together with the considered strength of their
defences, were decisive in averting such an eventuality. The military arm of the emirate
was well organised both on sea and on land, and most towns and major settlements were
encircled by walls and towers. A new chain of forts had also been constructed in response
to the Viking raids of the ninth century, distinguished by their rapita place names.
Above all, successive emirs focused their attentions on the navy as the first line
of defence against the Scandinavians, something which the Franks had failed to do.
Abd al-Rahman II built new shipyards at Seville and established a naval base at
Almería, while Muhammad I ordered the construction of a completely new fleet – an
example that was followed by Abd al-Rahman III who did the same in the 950 s (Collins
1995 : 193 ).
It was thus not until the second half of the tenth century that Viking raiders attacked
Spain again, by which time there had been many changes in Islamic politics. In the early
years of the century a new power had arisen in North Africa, where a Shiite rebellion in
909 had proclaimed an al Mahdi descended from the prophet’s daughter, Fatima (Brett
1978 b). Over the next sixty years, the Fatimids expanded and conquered as far east as
Egypt, where they founded Cairo as the capital of a new caliphate. This was established
in opposition to the Abbasids, who still ruled from Baghdad as before. In response to
this and the perceived threat from North Africa, the Umayyad emir of Córdoba then
proclaimed himself caliph too, thus making three simultaneous caliphates in the Islamic
world (relations between al-Andalus and the other Muslim states are ably summarised in
Scales 1994 ).
Against the background of these complex events, which naturally involved a high
degree of military preparedness among the Muslim states, it is perhaps not surprising
that the bulk of the renewed Viking raids on Iberia were confined to the Christian
kingdoms in the north. Galicia was attacked in 951 , 965 and 966 , with a naval battle
being fought on the latter occasion in the mouth of the Silves River. During this period
forays were also made to the south as far as Lisbon. Two years later in 968 , a Viking army
under a commander called Gunnrauðr defeated the Galician forces, and killed Sisnando,
the bishop of Santiago de Compostela. From their base on the Ulla River this group of
Scandinavians then seem to have raided inland for some three years afterwards, causing
devastation that is still related in Galician folklore today (Almazán 2004 : 44 – 7 ). The
Spanish coasts were attacked again in 970 and 971 , with a raid the following year on the
Algarve in what is now southern Portugal. In general, the Muslim fleets were successful
in resisting these attacks (Morales Romero 2004 a: 69 – 75 ).
Sporadic Viking assaults continued in the north of Spain even into the eleventh
century. In 1008 Galicia and the Douro region were attacked, and in 1014 or 1015 a
major raid was launched against the city of Tui at the mouth of the Miño River. The
Vikings seem to have been led on this occasion by Óláfr Haraldsson, and managed to
successfully capture the bishop and many of the town’s inhabitants. It is uncertain if
these prisoners were ransomed, or even sold as slaves in the emirate. Galicia was
again attacked in 1028 , by a fleet perhaps under the command of a Viking called
–– chapter 34: Spain, North Africa and the Mediterranean––