dissimilarities are expressed for example in language, religion, art, fashion and building
traditions.
The relations of the Scandinavians with the natives of the eastern Baltic had both
mercantile and military aspects. In communication, evidently private initiatives at the
local level and the activities of the emerging Scandinavian state formations must be
distinguished.
Trading contactsIn the eastern Baltic, the impact of Viking activities on native culture is the strongest in
Latvia, in the densely populated Livic areas at the lower course of the Daugava River,
up to c. 30 km from its mouth (Caune 1992 ). Probably a strong impetus for
the emerging Livic culture was provided by its location at important trading routes. At
the large Salaspils Laukskola cemetery (Zarin ̧a 2006 ), Scandinavian imports occurred in
6 per cent of the tenth- and eleventh-century graves (Zarin ̧a 1992 : 184 ), mainly in rich
burials of native character. The Scandinavian contacts are represented, in addition to
silver coins, by oval brooches which were imported between 950 – 1000 ( Jansson 1992 ;
Spirgis 2004 , 2007 ), silver penannular brooches, pendants, belt details, bone combs etc.
The importance of Scandinavian contacts is most clearly expressed in the local imita-
tions of Scandinavian artefact forms: oval brooches from the eleventh to thirteenth
centuries (Tõnisson 1974 : 120 – 1 ; Jansson 1992 : 72 – 4 ), weapons (Creutz 2003 ) and belt
buckles.
In Estonia Scandinavian influences on the local culture are much weaker. Their
presence is not expressed in fashion and costume – for example, oval brooches are
rare (Luik 1998 ) – but mainly in imported silver coins. Finds of Scandinavian Viking
Age ornaments (Figure 36. 3 ) are rare in Estonian cemeteries and hoards (Tamla 1995 ).
In spite of the Viking routes, traces of Scandinavian permanent settlement are
virtually absent in the eastern Baltic. In the well-investigated cemeteries of the Daugava
Livs just some single graves can be interpreted as ‘Scandinavian’. Thus, from the 610
graves excavated at Laukskola cemetery merely four (incl. a warrior) can be regarded as
Figure 36. 3 Scandinavian silver pendants from Estonian hoards: ( 1 ) Kose (AM 25159 : 1 ),
( 2 ) Olustvere (AI 5005 : 1 ).–– Heiki Valk––