name of Simon’s son Georgy who lived with his descendants in Suzdal’ and made a
generous donation for the Cave Monastery in Kiev.
There is written evidence from the early eleventh century, which testifies that there
were many ‘fast-moving Danes in Kiev’ (Warner 2001 : 384 ). Among the inscriptions of
the Old Rus’ elite in the St Sofia Cathedral in Kiev, there is one with the Old Norse
name Yakun (Hákon) written with unsure Cyrillic letters (Vysotskij 1966 : nr 29 ). The
only find of a runestone in the east came to light on the island of Berezan’ near the
mouth of the Dnepr (Melnikova 2001 : 200 – 2 ). A slab dated to the eleventh century
was raised by Grani in memory of his companion Karl. The stone was found in a later
grave and the original place is unknown. However, it is found on the island, which is
mentioned in De administrando imperio as the island of St Aitherios, where Rus’ usually
had a rest on the way between Kiev and Byzantium (Moravchik 1985 : 61 ). It is evident
that Grani chose a place where his monument could be read and understood. Swedish
runestones give evidence that many people were visiting eastern Europe at that time. On
the other hand, it should be noted that the runestone from Berezan’ belongs to the type
of burial monument made of limestone or sandstone that had strong connections to
churches and were raised on many graveyards in Sweden (Palm 2004 : 196 ). Because
archaeological excavations on Berezan’ revealed remains of a settlement and graves from
the tenth to twelfth centuries (Rolle 1989 : 494 ) it would be possible to suggest the
existence there of a church and Scandinavian visitors.
CONCLUSIONSContemporary Islamic and Byzantine and also later Russian and Scandinavian sources
testify mainly about Scandinavian war and trade activities in the east. Archaeological
sources show that the real picture was more complicated. From the archaeological point
of view, the importance of trade between Rus’ and Scandinavia seems to be exaggerated.
The penetration of the Northmen into eastern Europe was not only from the north to the
south and south-east. The context of the Scandinavian finds in Kiev, Chernihiv and
Gnëzdovo testifies that many people settled after having visited Byzantium, the Bulgars
and the Hungarians. Their presence in these lands is reflected in the introduction of a
new type of dress, a short coat with bronze buttons originating from the Byzantine
skaramangion, belts with decorated bronze fittings and even weapons, axes and new types
of bows, arrowheads and helms. From a modern point of view it is possible to trace
Scandinavians in both urban and rural settlements. The functional female jewellery such
as oval brooches, finds of some unfinished ornaments in Staraya Ladoga, Gorodishche
and Pskov as well as runic inscriptions and objects of cult testify that many Scandinavians
were living there permanently with families. The name of their identity has been
changed over time, shifting from Rus’ to Varangians. The Nordic identity has been
manifested by the use of traditional Old Norse personal names, runic inscriptions and
burial customs. The places where some Scandinavian family graveyards were situated
affected the reshaping of the cultural landscapes of some Old Rus’ towns. Christian
churches and monasteries were founded on some of the graveyards or in their vicinity.
The chamber graves, which were common in the most prominent centres of north
Europe, here obtained a new symbolic and ritual value. Their constructions reveal
features characteristic of the local house-building tradition. Double graves and graves
with the bodies in sitting position make it possible to see them as graves of famous
–– chapter 38 : The Vikings in the east––