Bibliography: Arabic text: Annales (Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium: Scrip-
tores Arabici, series 3 , vol. 6 ), L. Cheikho (ed.), Beirut: Matbaat al-Aba al-
Yasuiyyin, 1905 ; F. Micheau, Said b. al-Bitrik, EI 2 , vol. 8 : 853 – 6.[b] During the course of the tenth century an approach to the presentation of geo-
graphical knowledge (known today as ‘the Atlas of Islam’) emerged in the eastern
province of Khurasan. It was initiated by the philosopher Abu Zayd al-Balkhi (d. 934 )
in his Representations of the Climes (no longer extant in its own right), was continued by
al-Istakhri (fl. mid-tenth century) whose Treatise of the Highways and the Kingdoms is
thought principally to be an extensive quotation of al-Balkhi’s work, and found fullest
expression in the maps and text of The Representation of the Earth by Ibn Hawqal (d.
c. 988 ), which is itself frequently a verbatim quotation of al-Istakhri’s work. From
al-Istakhri’s work (and Ibn Hawqal’s version of it: IH), we learn that the Rus inhabit a
territory between the Bulghar and the Saqaliba on the river Volga (IH); that the Khazar
import from the Rus, the Bulghar and Kwyaba (Kiev) honey, wax and pelts (IH); that
Kwyaba is not situated in any formal administrative province (iqlim) (not in IH); that
al-Rus, like al-Khazar and al-Sarir, is the name of a kingdom, and not a town or a
people (not in IH); that the Rus language differs from the language of the Khazar and
the Burtas (IH); that there are three distinct groupings of the Rus: those of Kwyaba,
closest to Bulghar (which it surpasses in size) (IH), where the king resides (not in IH);
al-Slawiyya, with their capital in al-Sla, to the north; and al-Arthaniyya, with their
capital in al-Artha, whence merchandise is brought to Kwyaba: an impenetrable region,
its people xenophobic and secretive, whence lead, marten and black fox furs come (IH);
that the Rus burn their dead (IH adds several other ethnic groups who have the same
practice, among them the Indians); and that slave-girls willingly accompany their rich
masters in cremation; that some shave their faces while others plait their beards
like curried horse tails (IH adds or women’s hair-braids); that they wear short qurtaqs,
unlike the Khazar, Bulghar and Petchenegs who wear the full qurtaq; that they are
very numerous and powerful, imposing land-taxes on the neighbouring territories of
the Byzantines and ‘Inner’ (i.e. Volga) Bulghar. Ibn Hawqal updates this last item of
information by describing the sorry plight of the Bulghar, Burtas and Khazar whose
lands have been ravaged by the Rus. Al-Istakhri also refers to the ‘Island of the Rusiyya’
in the Caspian Sea (?).
Bibliography: Arabic text: Al-Istakhri, Kitab al-Masalik wa-l-Mamalik, M.J.
Abd al-Hini (ed.), Cairo: Dar al-Qalam, 1961 ; (Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabico-
rum, vol. 1 ), M.J. de Goeje (ed.), Leiden: Brill, 1967 [ 1870 ]; Ibn Hawqal, Kitab
Surat al-Ard (Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum, vol. 2 ), J.H. Kramers (ed.),
Leiden: Brill, 1967 [ 1938 ]; French trans. by J.H. Kramers and G. Wiet, Con-
figuration de la terre, Beirut and Paris: UNESCO, 1964 ; W.M. Watt, Abu Zayd
Balki, EIr, vol. 1 : 399 – 400 ; O.G. Bolshakov, Estakri, EIr, vol. 8 : 646 – 7.[a] [b] and [c] The geographical scientist al-Masudi (d. 956 ) took an especial interest in
the riverine topography of the Caspian Sea, which he himself visited and about which he
quizzed the merchants and travellers whom he met. This desire to revise the theories
of his predecessors concerning whether the Caspian was land-locked or not led him to
investigate the peoples of the Caspian. The results of this in large part empirically
–– chapter 40 : Arabic sources on the Vikings––