358 JÜRGEN DANYEL AND ANNETTE SCHUHMANN
the victory of communism, claiming that such a process would lead to
the demise of capitalism because of the discontinuous nature of produc-
tion tied to the fl exibility of the markets in the West. By the 1980s, a
pragmatic way of dealing with this kind of technological propaganda had
prevailed, but it had already ceased to be regarded as an expression of
common sense by the 1970s.
In West Germany, misdirected rationalization strategies in the 1980s
and the state’s subvention policies, which leaned strongly toward lobby
interests, led to an enormous overestimation of automation and, in turn,
crises in some economic sectors. From the late 1960s, the competition,
particularly from Asia, edged closer in the automobile industry, consumer
electronics, and shipbuilding. Government and independent commercial
institutions thus kept their eyes fi xed fi rst and foremost on Japan.^28 One
of the most important realizations that came through observing develop-
ments in Japan was that technological factors played a secondary role,
whereas factors such as personnel management, industrial relations,
workforce organization, and job commitment were much more import-
ant when it came to explaining Japan’s superiority. This realization re-
inforced the management philosophies that had been recommended,
especially by business consultants who stressed the need for new forms
of workforce organization and dealing with “human resources.”
Over the course of the 1950s and 1960s, the visionary notions about
the future of automation processes in the East and West were quite simi-
lar. Despite the competition between the two systems and diff erent paths
of development, the elites in both systems, if not others, believed that
the computerization of science and work was revolutionary and neces-
sary. In both countries, the fi rst use of computers in production formed
the foundation for a high degree of optimism. Both sides saw the devel-
opment of microelectronics as a signifi cant factor in the rivalry between
the systems. Especially in terms of advanced technologies, however,
this bipolar constellation was asymmetric. To the West, the Eastern Bloc
hardly seemed to be much competition anymore, but it was seen as a
potential future sales market. For the leaders of the GDR, however, West
Germany remained a focal point and a frame of reference, as well as a
rival, until 1989.
Computerization in East and West Germany:
From the Mainframe to the Personal Computer
The expensive mainframe computers that had been used in the military,
scientifi c institutes, administrative offi ces, insurance companies, and in-