212 Stephanie Amedeo Marquez
instead it is an interaction which results in a social construction. As Gough
et al. (2013) suggested, insights into social psychology are seriously flawed
if they are boiled down to only understanding how “individuals are
constituted by society” (Gough et al., 2013, p. 109).
Pilarska (2014) noted self-construal is more accurately presented as a
mediator, or a synergistic interaction, of self-identity as taken into
consideration by the self within his or her concepts of the culture and
nature of the social group. “If self is constructed as interdependent with
others, such identity characteristics as a sense of uniqueness, separateness,
and continuity may be less important” (Pilarska, 2014, p. 132). As
elaborated in studies by Markus and Kitayama (1991, 2003), and Singelis
(1994, 1999), the influence of a culture’s collectivism on seemingly
individualistic traits, such as self-esteem or the ability to be embarrassed
by a group, should go beyond simplistic statements that some cultures are
individualistic in emphasis while others are interdependent. Self-construal
is not simply self-identity, either individual or interdependent (Pilarska,
2014). “This independent view of the self is lacking in its explanation of
the self-views of all people” (p. 131).
Price and Crapo’s (1992) studies supported the argument that
competitiveness and cooperation were culturally bound and noted
“individuals in many different societies demonstrate greater
competitiveness than people from a small town or rural environment” (p.
112). Kagan and Madsen’s (1971) comparative study of Anglo-American,
Mexican-American, and Mexican children found that “Mexican
children...were less competitive than either the Anglo-American or
Mexican-American children” (as cited in Price & Richley, 1992, p. 113).
Hsu’s (1961, 1983) consideration of ‘rugged individualism’ among
Chinese and Americans concluded that competitive individualism is
uniquely a hallmark of American culture.
However, the collectivist self-construal is not limited to cultures
outside the United States. Tomas Atencio’s (2009) critique of social
knowledge involves the inclusion of liberation philosophy (Burton, &
Kagan, 2009) and argues the experiences of all cultures must be affirmed
as valid foundations for knowledge. “Traditional cultures have indigenous