negative impact of offering social support. This may be an extreme example where
giving support is damaging because it is extremely stressful. Generally, social
psychologists researching reciprocity in social support have suggested that the feeling
of giving more support than you receive is beneficial for health (e.g. Liang, Krause
and Bennett, 2001). However, there do seem to be gender differences. Vaananen
et al. (2005) examined the long-term effects of perceived reciprocity in intimate
relationships on sickness absence and found that women who gave more support than
they received were healthier (compared to those who received more than they gave),
whereas men who received more than they gave were healthier. They suggested that
giving support was associated with enhanced self-esteem for women.
In summary, many of the findings in studies discussed in this section emphasize the
importance of providing social support in a way that does not undermine individuals’
self-esteem and feelings of competence.
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN SOCIAL SUPPORT RESEARCH
Loneliness and social isolation
In recent years research has focused on the effects of social isolation and loneliness.
Social isolation refers to a lack of social networks. For example, those living alone with
few friends and family and limited contact with others are regarded as isolated (Shankar
et al., 2011). As we have seen earlier in this chapter it is well established that such
isolation is associated with a range of cognitive and health problems and with increased
mortality.
Loneliness is the perception of social isolation and is not necessarily the same as
objective isolation. Feelings of loneliness may occur in those who have considerable
social contacts while some quite isolated people do not feel lonely. Social isolation is
a particular risk for older people as they frequently live alone and may have lost partners
or suffer deteriorating mobility. Loneliness in this group is also a matter of concern.
A survey of older people (over age 65) in the UK found that 7 per cent reported being
often or always lonely (Victor et al., 2005). Loneliness is found to show a U-shaped
relationship with age, being higher among those aged under 25 and those aged over
65 years (Victor and Yang, 2012).
Loneliness, like social isolation, has been linked to an increase in physical illness
and mortality (for reviews see Hawkley and Cacioppo, 2010 and Cacioppo and
Cacioppo, 2014). Hawkley and Cacioppo (2010) also report evidence of devastating
effects of loneliness on mental well-being and cognitive functioning. It has been
associated with increased risk of depression, cognitive decline and Alzheimer’s disease.
So serious are these effects that Hawkley and Cacioppo (2010: 209) conclude that
‘A perceived sense of social connectedness serves as a scaffold for the self – damage
the scaffold and the self starts to crumble’.
Recent research has investigated the mechanisms whereby both loneliness and
social isolation are linked to illness and mortality. It is unclear whether they have inde -
pendent effects or whether loneliness mediates the relationship between social isolation
and health (see Focus 5.2) and few studies examine both variables in conjunction.
Cornwell and Waite (2009) found that loneliness and isolation have independent effects
COPING AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 109