Second, SE can also be enhanced through observation of others’ success, especially
if we categorize the models as being like ourselves. For example, Bandura (1997) notes
that observing failure in a model judged to have less skill than ourselves has little or
no impact on SE but observing the same failure in a model judged to have similar
skills is likely to undermine SE. Health promoters should conduct preliminary research
into when positive and negative models are helpful to people establishing new goals,
building SE and acquiring new skills. Positive models (that is, observation of successful
others) are likely to be SE-enhancing (e.g. in the case of physical fitness), although in
some cases, for example when undesirable body image is salient, negative models (that
is, use of models failing to establish physical fitness) may be motivating (Lockwood et
al., 2005). Moreover, contrasts between current self and desired or ideal self can be
motivating, that is, negative self models (i.e. an undesirable self) may have positive
effects on changing motivation when combined with realistic goal-setting opportunities
(Oettingen, 1996).
Third, when direct experience and modelling are not available, SE can be enhanced
through verbal persuasion. People can be persuaded by arguments demonstrating that
others (like them) are successful in meeting challenges similar to their own (thereby
changing descriptive norms) as well as persuasion highlighting the individual’s own
skills and past success. Tailoring communication to enhance persuasiveness (as discussed
in this chapter), including, for example, maximizing source trustworthiness and
expertise is likely to enhance the effectiveness of such interventions.
Finally, our own physiological reactions and our interpretations of these reactions
affect SE. Mood, stress and anxiety during performance can bolster or undermine
self-efficacy. For example, although arousal is normal during demanding performances,
it can be interpreted as a sign of panic or incompetence. Such interpretations are
likely to disrupt and undermine performance. By contrast, acknowledging arousal as
a natural response to performance demands may add to excitement and commitment.
Thus interventions designed to reduce negative moods and anxiety and to reinterpret
destructive interpretations of arousal are likely to enhance SE and facilitate skilled
performance.
FROM MOTIVATION TO BEHAVIOUR CHANGE
In this chapter we have considered the use of evidence-based techniques to enhance
motivation to perform health-related behaviours. In Chapter 7 we noted that
motivation alone may not be enough to prompt action. Research on the intention–
behaviour gap and implementation intention formation indicates that interventions
focusing on post-intentional or volitional processes may be critical to prompting already
motivated people to adopt health-promoting behaviours. Thus the challenge for health
promoters is to generate the motivation to perform target health behaviours and also
to help motivated people develop volitional capacities (e.g. bolstering self-efficacy and
prompting implementation intention formation).
In the face of growing health care demands from ageing populations and increas -
ing prevalence of long-term illnesses (see Chapter 10) health services have begun
to supplement one-to-one professional–patient models of health care delivery with
group and volunteer delivery modes (Whelan, 2002). Such programmes aim to
CHANGING MOTIVATION 183