Health Psychology, 2nd Edition

covering a general field of study. Within this field there are many diverse areas of
research, which look at relationships between objective or perceived antecedents (or
stressors) and a range of physiological, psychological or behavioural outcomes (often
referred to as strains). The latter may include the kind of physiological measures (e.g.
cortisol, blood pressure) discussed in Chapter 2, as well as illness outcomes (like the
occurrence of cancer or heart disease), measures of work performance or health
behaviours or, perhaps most frequently, self-ratings of satisfaction or anxiety.
Perhaps because of the vagueness of the concept there is sometimes disagreement
about basic issues such as whether a certain amount of stress is good for you. This clearly
depends on the definition you use. For example, taking a stimulus-based approach,
up to a certain point, stimuli such as work pressures may certainly be motivating and
beneficial. However, using Lazarus’ popular definition given above, which views stress
in terms of a process involving threats to our well-being, it is harder to see how this
can be construed as beneficial! A number of different approaches to stress are considered
in the following sections.

STRESS THEORY AND RESEARCH 45

Is stress increasing?

There is a widespread view often reflected in the media that the amount of stress

in society, both within the family and the workplace, has increased greatly in recent

decades. This has been attributed to the breakdown of the nuclear family, the

loosening of extended family bonds caused by the widespread mobility in the

community and the rapid changes in the workplace. What do you think? Is life really

much more stressful than it was 50 years ago? Discuss this topic in groups, taking

into account the increased public awareness of psychological responses to

stressors and changes in people’s expectations.

Consider also what variables you would need to consider in making an

assessment of whether stress had increased. This could include increases in

stressors such as wars, poverty, unemployment or work stressors. It could also

include increases in outcomes such as psychiatric illness or stress-related disease.

ACTIVITY 3.1

EARLY APPROACHES TO STRESS

Two theorists who had a great influence in terms of popularizing the concept of stress
were both physiologists: Walter Cannon and Hans Selye. Cannon (1932) wrote about
the ‘fight-or-flight’ reaction to describe the human response to threats. Cannon
believed that when faced with danger, such as a predator, the human being feels the
emotions of fear or anger, the former being linked to an instinct to run away and the
latter with the urge to fight. These reactions served to prepare the body for action as
outlined in Chapter 2.