Health Psychology, 2nd Edition

STRESS AND HEALTH IN CONTEXT 73

The limitations of such frameworks have prompted some researchers to develop
more complex models incorporating all possible stressors and influences (Beehr and
Newman, 1978; Cooper et al., 1988). For example, the model developed by Beehr
and Newman incorporated 150 variables. Unfortunately, such models are too complex
to be easily testable or to provide practical guidance to those attempting to provide
interventions to reduce stress. The breadth of the concept of stress and the large number
of variables involved has undoubtedly rendered it challenging to develop concise and
comprehensive theories of work stress.

Working in groups, make a list of all the things that you think are stressful about

work (i.e. independent variables). Then note down individual characteristics that

would allow some people to cope with these stressors better than others, for

example, personality (see Chapter 6) or other resources they might have (i.e.

moderators – see Focus 5.2). Then, finally, think of all the possible outcomes (i.e.

physical, psychological and behavioural) that might result from high levels of stress

(i.e. dependent variables).

Much has been written about the key elements of a good theory (e.g. Popper,

1963). Usually this includes that the theory should be falsifiable and concise (or

parsimonious). Do you think it would be possible to produce a concise and

falsifiable theory of the causes of work stress from your three lists of variables?

Discuss why it might be difficult to produce a good theory of work stress.

ACTIVITY 4.1

Thus, most research has focused on more specific testable models focusing on a
limited number of variables and potential interactions between them. Three such
models have stimulated a great deal of research in recent years: the job demand–control
(JDC) model (also known as the job strain model; Karasek, 1979; Karasek and
Theorell, 1990), the job demand–resources (JD-R) model (Demerouti et al., 2001)
and the effort–reward imbalance (ERI) model (Siegrist, 1996).

Karasek’s job demand–control model

In its original form this model focused on two key aspects of work – demands and
control – as suggested by the name of the model (Karasek, 1979). A high demand job
is a job with heavy workload, fast pace of work and conflicting demand (see Figure
4.1). A high control job means the employee has a say in decisions relating to their
job. The model predicts that jobs that have a combination of high demand and low
levels of control would result in high levels of psychological and physical strain for
employees, i.e. they would be ‘high strain’ jobs (see Figure 4.2). Typical jobs of this
type might include call centre work or being a junior doctor or nurse in a busy casualty
department. The opposite combination, low levels of demand and high levels of control
would result in low levels of strain. While there is a common view that it is senior