Work–life conflict
Relationships between work and other aspects of life have been investigated in terms
of role conflict, that is, when a person feels incompatible pressures from two separate
roles. Most commonly this has focused on work–family conflict (Greenhaus and
Beutell, 1985). For example, it may be that time spent at work prevents people from
participating in family activities, or it may be that strain experienced at work affects
people psychologically at home, or that particular behaviours found useful at work spill
over and cause problems in the home environment. Thus, Greenhaus and Beutell
(1985) introduced the concepts of time-based, strain-based and behaviour-based
conflict. Like spillover, conflict can occur in two directions, work may affect family
life (work-to-family interference) and family issues may impact on work (family-to-
work interference: O’Driscoll, Brough and Kalliath, 2006). Recently, there has been
some criticism of the emphasis on ‘family’ implied by the term ‘work–family conflict’,
as increasing numbers of people live alone but nevertheless may experience conflicts
with personal life and leisure activity. Many researchers now prefer to look at
‘work–life’ conflict (e.g. Siegel et al., 2005).
Research suggests that in the past, work-to-family conflict was typically higher
among men than women, while family-to-work conflict was higher in women.
However, research suggests that these effects are now levelling out (O’Driscoll et al.,
2006). This is probably due to more equal roles in both work and home life. The
negative effects of work–family conflict include increased work turnover and poorer
work performance, reduced job satisfaction, increased distress and depression, poorer
physical health and increased alcohol consumption.
Grandey and Cropanzano (1999) suggest that the effect of work and family stress
can be explained by conservation of resources theory (Hobfoll, 1989; see Chapter 3).
For example, conflict arising in the work role may result in fewer resources (such as
time) being available to spend in the other role. However, those with additional
resources such as marital partners may suffer less than those with fewer overall
resources. Consistent with this, research has found that long work hours are linked to
work–family conflict (e.g. Major, Klein and Ehrhart, 2002) and that having a partner
is linked to reduced conflict both from work to family and family to work (Brough
and Kelling, 2002).
Work–family and family–work facilitation
Positive experiences at work may also spill over and lead to greater happiness at home
and vice versa. In the past, the bulk of research focused on stress and role conflict.
With current trends towards a more positive psychology, however, researchers are
looking at these beneficial impacts. A range of terms have been used to describe this
process including positive spillover, work–family (and family–work) facilitation,
enhancement or enrichment (O’Driscoll et al., 2006). These terms all broadly refer to
the idea that engagement in work has beneficial impacts on engagement in the family
and vice versa. For example, skills and knowledge gained in one domain may be
beneficial in the other. Similarly, affective assets (positive moods or confidence) or
capital assets (e.g. financial or social) acquired in one domain may help in the other
(Carlson et al., 2006). Grzywacz and Bass (2003) have found that optimal adult mental
80 STRESS AND HEALTH