Chapter 7 Thinking and Intelligence 247skills still keep making the same dumb choices in
their relationships, and some people who don’t
seem especially bright are successful in love and
work. That is why some psychological scientists
reject the idea of a g factor as an adequate descrip-
tion of intelligence, and prefer to speak of differ-
ent kinds of intelligence.
One is Robert Sternberg (1988, 2004, 2012),
who has developed the triarchic theory of intel-
ligence (1988) (triarchic means “three-part”). He
defines intelligence as “the skills and knowledge
needed for success in life, according to one’s own
definition of success, within one’s sociocultural
context.” A guitar player, builder, scientist, and
farmer can all be called successful if they make the
most of their strengths, correct their weaknesses,
and adapt to, select, and shape their environments
to improve their lives. According to Sternberg,
successfully intelligent people balance three kinds
of intelligence: analytic, creative, and practical. If
they are weak in one, they learn to work around
that weakness.1
Componential or analytical intelligence refers to
the information-processing strategies (compo-
nents) you draw on when you are thinking intelli-
gently about a problem: recognizing and defining
the problem, comparing and contrasting alterna-
tives, selecting a strategy for solving it, mastering
and carrying out the strategy, and evaluating the
result. Such abilities are required in every culture
but are applied to different kinds of problems in
different cultures. One society may emphasize the
use of these components to solve abstract prob-
lems, whereas another may emphasize using the
same components to maintain smooth relation-
ships. In Western cultures, analytic intelligence
is associated with academic work and is the kind
most often measured on standardized tests.2
Experiential or creative intelligence refers to
your creativity in transferring skills to new
situations. People with experiential intelligence
cope well with novelty and learn quickly to make
new tasks automatic. Those who are lacking in
this area perform well only under a narrow set
of circumstances. They may do well in school,
where assignments have specific due dates and
feedback is immediate, but be less successful after
graduation if their jobs require them to set their
own deadlines and their supervisors don’t provide
regular evaluations.3
Contextual or practical intelligence refers to the
practical application of intelligence, which
requires you to take into account the different con-
texts in which you find yourself. If you are strong
in contextual intelligence, you know when to adapttriarchic [try-ARE-
kick] theory of intel-
ligence A theory of intel-
ligence that emphasizes
analytic, creative, and
practical abilities.Elements of Intelligence
LO 7.13, LO 7.14
One cognitive ingredient of intelligence is work-
ing memory, a complex capacity that enables you
to manipulate information retrieved from long-
term memory and interpret it appropriately while
you are working on a given task (see Chapter 8).
Working memory permits you to juggle your
attention while you are working on a problem,
shifting your attention from one piece of infor-
mation to another while ignoring distracting or
irrelevant information. People who do well on
tests of working memory tend to be good at many
real-life tasks requiring the control of attention,
including reading comprehension, writing, and
reasoning (Engle, 2002). In contrast, people with
less working-memory capacity often have trouble
keeping their minds on the job at hand and may
not get better on a task, even with practice (Kane
et al., 2007).
Another cognitive ingredient of intelligence
is metacognition, the knowledge or awareness of
your own cognitive processes and the ability to
monitor and control those processes. Students
who are weak in metacognition fail to notice when
a passage in a textbook is difficult, and they do not
always realize that they haven’t understood what
they’ve been reading. As a result, they spend too
little time on difficult material and too much time
on material they already know. They are overcon-
fident about their comprehension and memory,
and then are surprised when they do poorly on
exams (Dunlosky & Lipko, 2007). In contrast, stu-
dents who are strong in metacognition check their
comprehension by restating what they have read,
testing themselves, backtracking when necessary,
and questioning what they are reading. When
time is limited, they tackle fairly easy material first
(where the payoff will be great), and then move on
to more difficult material; as a result, they learn
better (Metcalfe, 2009).
It works in the other direction, too: The kind
of intelligence that enhances academic perfor-
mance can help you develop metacognitive skills.
Students with poor academic skills typically fail
to realize how little they know; they think they’re
doing fine (Dunning, 2005). The very weaknesses
that keep them from doing well in their courses
also keep them from realizing their weaknesses.
People with strong academic skills tend to be
more realistic. Often they even underestimate
slightly how their performance compares with the
performance of their peers.
The Triarchic Theory. Some people who have
a good working memory and strong metacognitive
working memory A
complex type of memory
that permits the manipu-
lation of information
retrieved from long-term
memory and makes it
available for working on a
given task.metacognition The
knowledge or awareness
of one’s own cognitive
processes and the ability
to monitor and control
those processes.