Chapter 7 Thinking and Intelligence 259the appropriate number of times. But a little
careful experimentation by psychologist Oskar
Pfungst (1911/1965) revealed that when Clever
Hans was prevented from seeing his question-
ers, his powers left him. It seems that question-
ers were staring at the horse’s feet and leaning
forward expectantly after stating the problem,
then lifting their eyes and relaxing as soon as
he completed the right number of taps. Clever
Hans was indeed clever, but not at math or other
human skills. He was merely responding to non-
verbal signals that people were inadvertently
providing. (Perhaps he had a high EQ.)
On the other side are those who warn against
the opposite error—the tendency to think, mis-
takenly, that human beings have nothing in com-
mon with other animals, who are, after all, our
evolutionary cousins (de Waal, 2001; Fouts, 1997).
The need to see our own species as unique, they
say, may keep us from recognizing that other
species, too, have cognitive abilities, even if not
as sophisticated as our own. Those who take this
position point out that most modern researchers
have gone to great lengths to avoid the Clever
Hans problem.
The outcome of this debate is bound to
affect the way we view ourselves and our place
among other species. Perhaps we can find a way
to study and think about animal abilities and
emotions without assuming sentimentally that
they are just like our own. There is no disput-
ing, however, that scientific discoveries about
the cognitive abilities of our animal relatives are
teaching us to have greater respect for animal
minds.intelligent are they? Are Kanzi, Chaser, and Alex
unusual, or are they typical of their species? In their
efforts to correct the centuries-old underestimation
of animal cognition, are modern researchers now
reading too much into their data and overestimat-
ing animals’ abilities?
On one side are those who worry about
anthropomorphism, the tendency to falsely attrib-
ute human qualities to nonhuman beings with-
out considering simpler explanations for the
animals’ behavior (Balter, 2012; Wynne, 2004).
They like to tell the story of Clever Hans, a
“wonder horse” at the turn of the century who
was said to possess mathematical and other
abilities (Spitz, 1997). Clever Hans would
answer math problems by stamping his hoof
This old photo shows Clever Hans in action. His story
has taught researchers to beware of anthropomorphism
when they interpret findings on animal cognition.
Recite & Review
Recite: Express aloud to the smartest animal you can find what you know about cognitive
ethology, animal intelligence, evidence that some animals have a theory of mind and a degree of
metacognition, and animals’ capacity for language.
Review: Next, reread this section.Now take this Quick Quiz:
- Which of the following abilities have primates demonstrated, either in the natural environment
or the laboratory? (a) the use of objects as simple tools, (b) the summing of quantities, (c) the
use of symbols to make requests, (d) an understanding of short English sentences - Barnaby thinks his pet snake Curly is harboring angry thoughts about him because Curly has
been standoffish and won’t curl around his neck anymore. What error is Barnaby making?
Answers:
Study and Review at MyPsychLabanthropomorphism 2. all of them1.