Invitation to Psychology

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Chapter 9 Learning and Conditioning 339

Chapter 9

Learning and Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Principles of Operant Conditioning

• Extinction: occurs when the
  behavior is no longer followed
  by the consequence that
  reinforced it.


• Stimulus generalization: a
  response reinforced (or
  punished) in the presence of
  one stimulus occurs (or is
  suppressed) in the presence of
  similar stimuli.


• Stimulus discrimination: a
  response occurs in the presence
  of one stimulus but not in the
  presence of similar ones that
  differ from it on some dimen-
  sion.
  
  
  • Schedules of reinforcement:
     Continuous reinforcement
    leads to the fastest learning.
     Intermittent (partial)
    schedule of reinforcement
    makes a response resistant to
    extinction.
  
  
  • Shaping: used to train
    behaviors through reinforce-
    ment of successive approxima-
    tions until the desired behavior
    occurs.
  
  
  • Instinctive drift: the tendency
    for an organism to revert to
    instinctive behavior.
  
  
  
  

The Problems With Reward

• Rewards are often misused by being given
  indiscriminately, unrelated to desired behavior.


• Exclusive reliance on extrinsic reinforcement
  can undermine the power of intrinsic reinforce-
  ment, such as enjoyment of the task.


• The effects of extrinsic reinforcers depend on
  many factors, such as a person’s initial motivation,
  the context, and whether improvement at a task is
  reinforced.

Operant Conditioning in Real Life

Behavior modification (also known as applied

behavior analysis): the application of conditioning

techniques outside the laboratory to teach new

responses or eliminate behavior problems.

The Pros and Cons of Punishment

Punishment can effectively discourage

undesirable behavior. However, as a method

of correcting behavior, it often fails, for

these reasons:

• It is often administered inappropriately or
  mindlessly.


• Recipients often respond with anxiety,
  fear, or anger.


• Effectiveness is only temporary, depend-
  ing on the presence of the punishing
  person.


• The punishment is often too delayed to
  be effective.


• It does not convey what the person or
  animal should do.


• Its administration sometimes inadvert-
  ently rewards the unwanted behavior
  because it brings attention.

Operant conditioning is the process by which a response becomes more likely or less likely

to occur, depending on its consequences; associated with the work of B. F. Skinner.

Learning and the Mind

Latent Learning

• Latent learning is not immediately expressed in
  performance.


• It can occur without obvious reinforcers.


• It involves acquiring knowledge about responses
  and their consequences, which permits flexibility
  in reaching goals.

Social-Cognitive Learning Theories

• Social-cognitive learning theories focus on
  observational learning and the role played by beliefs,
  interpretations of events, and other cognitions.


• Social-cognitive theorists argue that because people differ
  in their perceptions and beliefs, they may learn different
  lessons from the same situations, as in the case of media
  violence.

FPO