GloSSARy G-2conservation The understanding that the physical properties of objects—
such as the number of items in a cluster or the amount of liquid in a
glass—can remain the same even when their form or appearance changes.
consolidation The process by which a memory becomes durable and
stable.
contact comfort In primates, the innate pleasure derived from close
physical contact; it is the basis of an infant’s first attachment.
continuous reinforcement A reinforcement schedule in which a particu-
lar response is always reinforced.
control condition In an experiment, a comparison condition in which
subjects are not exposed to the same treatment as are those in the exper-
imental condition.
convergence The turning inward of the eyes, which occurs when they
focus on a nearby object.
corpus callosum [CoRE-pus ca-loW-suhm] The bundle of nerve fibers
connecting the two cerebral hemispheres.
correlation A measure of how strongly two variables are related to each
other.
correlational study A descriptive study that looks for a consistent rela-
tionship between two phenomena.
cortisol A hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex that elevates blood
sugar and protects the body’s tissues in case of injury; if chronically
elevated due to stress, it can lead to hypertension, immune disorders,
other illnesses, and possibly depression.
counterconditioning In classical conditioning, the process of pairing
a conditioned stimulus with a stimulus that elicits a response that is
incompatible with an unwanted conditioned response.
critical period A period of time in a person’s or animal’s life when expo-
sure to certain stimuli or experiences is necessary for the optimal devel-
opment of a particular skill or ability.
critical thinking The ability and willingness to assess claims and make
objective judgments on the basis of well-supported reasons and evidence
rather than emotion or anecdote.
cross-sectional study A study in which individuals of different ages are
compared at a given time.
crystallized intelligence Cognitive skills and specific knowledge acquired
over a lifetime; it is heavily dependent on education and tends to remain
stable.
cue-dependent forgetting The inability to retrieve information stored in
memory because of insufficient cues for recall.
culture A program of shared rules that govern the behavior of members
of a community or society and a set of values, beliefs, attitudes, and
customs shared by most members of that community.
cultural syndromes Symptoms or mental disorders that are specific to
particular cultural contexts and practices.
dark adaptation A process by which visual receptors become maximally
sensitive to dim light.
decay theory The theory that information in memory eventually disap-
pears if it is not accessed; it applies better to short-term than to long-term
memory.
declarative memories Memories of facts, rules, concepts, and events
(“knowing that”); they include semantic and episodic memories.
deep processing In the encoding of information, the processing of mean-
ing rather than simply the physical or sensory features of a stimulus.
defense mechanisms Methods used by the ego to prevent unconscious
anxiety or threatening thoughts from entering consciousness.
deindividuation In groups or crowds, the loss of awareness of one’s own
individuality.
dendrites A neuron’s branches that receive information from other neu-
rons and transmit it toward the cell body.
dependent variable A variable that an experimenter predicts will be
affected by manipulations of the independent variable.
depressants Drugs that slow activity in the central nervous system.cerebral cortex A collection of several thin layers of cells covering the
cerebrum; it is largely responsible for higher mental functions. Cortex is
Latin for “bark” or “rind.”
cerebral hemispheres The two halves of the cerebrum.
cerebrum [suh-REE-brum] The largest brain structure, consisting of the
upper part of the brain; divided into two hemispheres, it is in charge of
most sensory, motor, and cognitive processes. From the Latin for “brain.”
childhood (infantile) amnesia The inability to remember events and
experiences that occurred earlier than age 2.
chronotype A person’s disposition to be a “morning person” or an
“ evening person.”
chunk A meaningful unit of information; it may be composed of smaller
units.
circadian [sur-CAy-dee-un] rhythm A biological rhythm with a period
(from peak to peak or trough to trough) of about 24 hours; from the Latin
circa, “about,” and dies, “a day.”
classical conditioning The process by which a previously neutral stimu-
lus is paired with a stimulus that already elicits a certain response and,
in turn, acquires the capacity to elicit a similar or related response. Also
called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning.
client-centered therapy A humanist approach to therapy devised by Carl
Rogers, which emphasizes the therapist’s empathy with the client and
the use of unconditional positive regard.
cochlea [KoCK-lee-uh] A snail-shaped, fluid-filled organ in the inner
ear, containing the organ of Corti, where the receptors for hearing are
located.
coefficient of correlation A measure of correlation that ranges in value
from −1.00 to +1.00.
cognitive dissonance A state of tension that occurs when a person
simultaneously holds two cognitions that are psychologically inconsistent
or when a person’s belief is incongruent with his or her behavior.
cognitive perspective A psychological approach that emphasizes mental
processes in perception, memory, language, problem solving, and other
areas of behavior.
cognitive schema An integrated mental network of knowledge, beliefs,
and expectations concerning a particular topic or aspect of the world.
cognitive therapy A form of therapy designed to identify and change
irrational, unproductive ways of thinking and, hence, to reduce negative
emotions and their self-defeating consequences.
collective unconscious In Jungian theory, the universal memories and
experiences of humankind, represented in the symbols, stories, and
images (archetypes) that occur across all cultures.
collectivist cultures Cultures in which the self is regarded as embedded
in relationships, and harmony with one’s group is prized above individual
goals and wishes.
concept A mental category that groups objects, relations, activities,
abstractions, or qualities having common properties.
conditioned response (CR) The classical-conditioning term for a
response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus; it occurs after the
conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
conditioned stimulus (CS) The classical-conditioning term for an ini-
tially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after
being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
cones Visual receptors involved in color vision.
confabulation Confusion of an event that happened to someone else
with one that happened to you, or a belief that you remember something
when it never actually happened.
confidence interval A statistical measure that provides, with a specified
probability, a range of values within which a population mean is likely
to lie.
confirmation bias The tendency to look for or pay attention only to infor-
mation that confirms one’s own belief, and ignore, trivialize, or forget
information that disconfirms that belief.