4 Friendship Across the Life Span
describe the various functions that friends serve, highlighting developmental and
gender differences. After presenting methods used to assess friendship experiences,
we summarize research that has examined consequences of poor friendship experi-
ences on children’s and adolescents’ socioemotional adjustment. We then describe
friendship processes that could contribute to negative outcomes, including the rein-
forcement of delinquent behavior or depressive symptoms. The chapter concludes
with suggestions for future directions for research, including an emphasis on impli-
cations for intervention.
A Theoretical Approach to Explaining
the Importance of Friendships
Sullivan (1953) proposed the first major theory that attempted to explain why chil-
dren’s peer experiences are related to their adjustment. Briefly, Sullivan suggested
that at different developmental periods, specific interpersonal needs emerge, and
particular social relationships are best suited to meet those needs. During infancy
(up to age 2 years), the primary need is for tenderness, which is satisfied by parents.
Companionship arises as a key need in childhood (ages 2 to 6 years) and is also
addressed by parents. Sullivan suggested that during the juvenile stage (ages 6 to
9 years), the major need is for acceptance, and while parents can fulfill this need,
peers become important as well. Beginning in preadolescence (ages 9 to 12 years),
the need for intimacy emerges and is primarily satisfied by same- sex peers, while
these peers also play a key role in satisfying other social needs, including acceptance
and companionship. Finally, during adolescence (ages 12 to 16 years), needs related
to sexuality arise and are typically fulfilled by opposite- sex peers, who begin to meet
the other social needs as well. Notably, according to Sullivan’s theory, friendships
emerge as highly significant relationships during preadolescence. Consistent with
this idea, Furman and Buhrmester (1992) found that during adolescence, close
friends begin to surpass parents as the primary source of social support.
Functions of Friendship
Across childhood and adolescence, friends fulfill a variety of critical functions that
promote positive socioemotional adjustment. A basic function of friendship is
companionship. Close friends frequently spend time together engaging in mutually
enjoyable activities, and by early adolescence, same- sex peers are greater sources
of companionship than are parents (Buhrmester & Furman, 1987). Friends often
provide instrumental aid, and children expect that their friends will be more helpful
than their acquaintances (Furman & Bierman, 1984). In addition, friends tend to
offer a sense of reliable alliance, or being loyal and available. Having a friend to rely