Childhood and Adolescence 13own depressive symptoms over time. For example, Giletta and colleagues (2011)
compared newly formed adolescent friendships to well- established, stable friend-
ships and found that only the new friendships differed significantly in initial depres-
sive symptom levels, although both types of friendships demonstrated significant
depression contagion effects over time. Notably, this effect was observed only in
female friendships, and only in friendships that were rated as being “true” best
friends. Thus, depression contagion in adolescence appears most likely to occur
within female best- friend dyads. This observation is significant, given that begin-
ning in adolescence, rates of depression in girls vastly outstrip rates in boys, a gender
disparity that continues through adulthood (Nolen- Hoeksema & Girgus, 1994).
This phenomenon may in part be explained by specific patterns of interacting
with others that are common in depressed individuals. Two of the most robustly
researched interpersonal processes are excessive reassurance seeking and negative
feedback seeking. According to Coyne’s (1976) interpersonal theory of depres-
sion, because depressed individuals often feel that they are inadequate, they tend to
repeatedly ask for reassurance that they are okay, are performing a task correctly, or
are deemed acceptable by their partner. Additionally, according to self- verification
theory, because depressed individuals possess a negative self- image, they tend to
actively seek out partners who provide feedback that confirms their negative self-
perception (Swann, Wenzlaff, Krull, & Pelham, 1992). These interaction patterns
are often unattractive to social partners and can lead to rejection, a process that is
theorized to prolong depressed mood ( Joiner, Metalsky, Katz, & Beach, 1999).
Interestingly, while rates of these styles are similar in boys and girls, they are sig-
nificantly associated with depressive symptoms only for girls (Borelli & Prinstein,
2006). Additionally, female adolescents’ high levels of reassurance seeking are asso-
ciated with decreases in friendship quality as reported by their friend (Prinstein
et al., 2005), while negative feedback seeking in girls is associated with increased
perceived criticism from their best friends (Borelli & Prinstein, 2006). These find-
ings provide clear support for the notion that adolescent girls are more susceptible
to experiencing contagion effects from interacting with depressed friends, and are
more likely to engage in interaction styles that are believed to promote depression
contagion, exacerbate their own levels of depression, and increase the probability of
their friends perceiving them negatively over time.
An additional process that contributes to depression contagion is co- rumination,
defined as the excessive discussion of personal problems within a dyadic relation-
ship (Rose, 2002). Co- rumination encompasses both the positive effects of intimate
exchange and the deleterious effects of depressive rumination. Co- rumination is
much more frequent in girls’ friendships than in boys’, and although co- rumination
in girls’ friendship dyads is associated with higher friendship intimacy, it comes at a
price of exacerbating depressive symptoms. Boys who co- ruminate appear to bene-
fit from the intimate exchange, but do not typically report corresponding depressive
symptoms (Rose, Carlson, & Waller, 2007). Particularly for girls, co- rumination