The Ancient Near East: Mesopotamia, Egypt, Phoenicia, Israel 11was therefore a recurring theme in Babylonian litera-
ture. Even death offered no hope of relief. In the great-
est of all Babylonian epics, the hero Gilgamesh is
inspired by the death of his friend Enkidu to wrestle
with the problem of the hereafter. His discoveries are
not reassuring. The nether world is portrayed as a grim
place, and neither the mythical Gilgamesh nor any
other Mesopotamian could apparently imagine the idea
of personal salvation. If their extensive literature is an
indication, the peoples of ancient Mesopotamia knew
how to enjoy life, but their enjoyment was tempered by
a grim fatalism (see document 1.2). In the land between
the rivers, with its terrible inundations and vulnerability
to invaders, it could hardly have been otherwise.
Ancient Egypt
While the Sumerians were establishing themselves in
Mesopotamia, another great civilization was develop-
ing in the valley of the Nile. In central Africa, more
than three thousand miles from the shores of the
Mediterranean, streams running from a cluster of great
lakes merge their waters to form the White Nile. The
lakes serve as a reservoir, and the river’s volume remains
constant with the seasons as it flows north to meet the
Blue Nile at Khartoum. The Blue Nile is smaller than
the White, but its sources are in the Ethiopian high-
lands where the monsoon rains of June and the melting
mountain snow become a torrent. This annual flood,
which reaches the lower Nile valley in July or August,
provides both the moisture and the rich layer of black
silt that support Egyptian life.
From the confluence of the two rivers, the Nile
makes a wide sweep to the west before flowing north-
ward through a valley more than 350 miles long but
rarely more than ten miles wide. The historic land of
Egypt is a narrow well-watered passageway between the
Mediterranean and the heart of Africa. To the west lies
the vast emptiness of the Libyan desert; to the east, a
line of parched and rugged hills mark the shores of the
Red Sea. Open country is found only near the river’s
mouth, a vast alluvial delta through which, in antiquity
at least, seven main channels provided access to the
Mediterranean. Summer temperatures in the valley are
not as hot as those of Mesopotamia, but little or no rain
falls and, without the river, life would be insupportable.
As in Mesopotamia, the key to Egyptian agriculture
was the proper management of the annual flood. The
Nile is more predictable and less violent than the Tigris
or Euphrates, but the construction of levees, catch-
ments, and an extensive network of ditches, was essen-
tial both to protect settlements and to preserve water
after the flood subsided in the fall. The high level of or-
ganization needed for such tasks and for the preserva-
tion and distribution of grain during the dry months
may have been responsible for the centralized, hierar-
chical character of ancient Egyptian society, but the
point is arguable. Little is known of politics before
the advent of the First Dynasty around 3100 B.C.At
that time, the kings of the First Dynasty or their
immediate predecessors united the two lands of Upper
(southern) and Lower (northern) Egypt and laid the
foundations of a political culture that would endure for
nearly three millennia. The essential characteristics
of Egyptian society were in place when the Third Dy-
nasty assumed power in 2686 B.C. and began the Old
Kingdom.
The history of ancient Egypt is conventionally di-
vided into three kingdoms and no fewer than twenty-
six dynasties: the Old Kingdom (2686–2181 B.C.), the
Middle Kingdom (2133–1786 B.C.), and the NewDOCUMENT 1.2
A Mesopotamian Prayer
This fragment from a longer prayer displays the characteristic
Mesopotamian attitude toward the gods, who are seen as hos-
tile, demanding, and inscrutable.The sin, which I have committed, I know not.
The iniquity, which I have done, I know not.
The offence, which I committed, I know not.
The transgression I have done, I know not.
The lord, in the anger of his heart, hath looked
upon me.
The god, in the wrath of his heart, hath visited me.
The goddess hath become angry with me, and
hath grievously stricken me.
The known or unknown god hath straightened
me.
The known or unknown goddess hath brought af-
fliction upon me.
I sought for help, but no one taketh my hand.
I wept, but no one came to my side.
May the known and unknown god be pacified!
May the known and unknown goddess be pacified!“Penitential Psalms.” In Assyrian and Babylonian Literature,
trans. R. F. Harper. New York: D. Appleton, 1901.