142Chapter 8two innovations: the iron horseshoe and the stirrup.
Neither were in common use before the ninth century.
The iron shoe permitted a horse to carry heavy weights
over bad ground without splitting its hooves. The stir-
rup allowed an armored man to brace himself and even
to stand in the saddle, which made it easier to wield a
heavy lance, shield, and double-edged sword on horse-
back. The new system produced an increase in offen-
sive power over that available to ancient or nomadic
cavalry, while a heavy chain mail coat offered an
effective defense against most edged weapons (see
illustration 8.2). The Franks, with their skill in iron-
work, could easily fashion the necessary equipment.
A defensive system evolved that was based on mo-
bile detachments of heavy cavalry garrisoned in scat-
tered strongholds or castles and supported directly by
the people they were intended to protect. In theory, a
band of horsemen could reach the site of a raid within
hours or, at worst, a day or two. As hundreds of smok-
ing villages continued to attest, this solution was not
perfect, but it forced the marauders to pay a higher cost
in blood than they might otherwise have done. With
time and practice the knights became a reasonably ef-
fective deterrent.
The new system was also used in disputes that had
nothing to do with the raids. The division of the em-pire encouraged territorial disputes that continued even
in the face of external threats. Armored knights could
be used to harry the lands of a hostile neighbor. Other
knights could be sent out to oppose them, but castles
provided the more effective defense. The presence of a
castle filled with armed men posed a serious threat to
any invading force, and operations had to be suspended
until that threat could be eliminated. For this reason
sieges were perhaps more common in medieval warfare
than pitched battles between mounted knights. Knights
directed the sieges and played a prominent role in the
fighting. The hard work of digging, undermining the
walls, and manning the rams or catapults fell to peas-
ants levied for the occasion.
A major defect of this kind of warfare was its ex-
pense. The cost of a horse and armor was roughly
equivalent to that of two dozen cattle, and few could
afford it. Charlemagne had begun to encourage the de-
velopment of heavy cavalry, but the tiny elite that
served him had to be supplemented under his succes-
sors by the enlistment of nearly everyone who was rich
enough and strong enough to fight on horseback.
Moreover, the kind of warfare in which they were en-
gaged demanded constant readiness and a level of skill
that was difficult to acquire and could be maintained
only through constant practice. The construction and
maintenance of castles required vast reserves of labor
and materials. Even those who were able to afford the
initial outlay could not be expected to support them-
selves indefinitely. In an age chronically short of cash,
the most practical, and perhaps the only, solution was
to provide these men with grants of land that could be
set aside for their use in return for military service.
The term feudalismrefers to the social institutions
that arose from this exchange of land for military ser-
vice. In its simplest form, a feudal bond was created
when a fighting man placed his hands between those of
his lord or liege and vowed to support him on the bat-
tlefield in return for a grant of land known as a benefice
or fief. By so doing he became the lord’s man, or vassal.
The terms of such contracts varied widely and were the
subject of much negotiation, but the basic principle of
mutual obligation remained constant. A vassal was to
support his lord and do nothing contrary to his interest;
the lord was obligated to provide his vassal with per-
sonal and legal protection as well as material support.
“Money fiefs,” in which cash was provided in return for
military service, existed, but in a virtually cashless soci-
ety they were rare.
The precedents for such arrangements were an-
cient. In principle, feudalism is a form of clientage thatIllustration 8.2
A Knight and His Equipment.This manuscript illumination
shows a knight wearing the conical helmet and long coat of
chain mail or birney typical of the feudal period. He is shown at
the charge with lance in hand. The high saddle made him diffi-
cult to unhorse, while the stirrups allowed him to stand up for
greater impact.