wooden roof, the builders covered the nave, or central
isle of the church, with a massive barrel vault that
rested upon a clerestory. The clerestory, with its arched
windows, rested upon round arches reinforced by side
aisles that served as buttresses (see illustration 9.2).
The new style consumed vast quantities of cut stone,
producing an overwhelming impression of power and
serenity.
In the course of the twelfth century, a new style
evolved based upon ribbed groin vaults and pointed
arches. Flying buttresses were developed to support
the weight of the vaulting, and the size of windows
was increased until, in the High Gothic style of the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, interiors were illu-
minated by vast sheets of stained glass that portrayed
episodes from the Scriptures so that even the illiterate
might absorb the teachings of the church (see illustra-
tion 9.3 and 9.4).
The construction of cathedrals required enor-
mous commitments of time and money. Some re-
quired centuries to build, and most were embellished
with painting, sculpture, and stained glass on a grand
scale. Such aesthetic achievements were made possi-
ble by the improved collection of tithes and the more
efficient management of church estates. Medieval so-
ciety was prepared to invest much of its meager eco-
nomic surplus in religious buildings. However, not
everyone viewed this development with enthusiasm.
The glories of Durham or Palermo, Chartres or
Amiens, were ultimately paid for by the labor of peas-
ants. Some complained that such magnificence was
inappropriate for the worship of a simple carpenter
from Galilee, but the reformers were inspired by a
vision of divine grandeur that demanded tangible ex-
pression on Earth.
Unfortunately, this vision could not comprehend
dissent. The faith born originally of the Cluniac revival
would inspire intellectual and artistic achievement for
years to come. It would also provoke the Crusades and
the virtual expulsion of the Jews from western Europe.The Crusades: The Reconquest
of Muslim Europe
The Crusades were both an expression of religious mili-
tancy and the first of several European attempts to ex-
pand geographically at the expense of non-Christians.
For the inhabitants of northern Europe, the Crusades
provided their first sustained encounter with Islam, a
society that was still in many ways more advanced than
their own.
The model for Christian expansionism was pro-
vided by the beginnings of the Spanish reconquista,or re-
conquest. In 1031 the caliph of Córdoba was deposed
during a prolonged civil war and Muslim Spain disinte-
grated into petty principalities based on the major
towns. Their number reached as high as twenty-three.
These small states, wealthy but militarily weak, offered
a tempting opportunity to the Christian kingdoms.
Taking advantage of Muslim disunity, the kings of
León and Castile began extending their realms
southward and received special privileges and plenary
indulgences (remissions of the punishment for sins162Chapter 9
Illustration 9.2
A Romanesque Interior.The nave and choir of St.-Sernin at
Toulouse, France, shows the round arches, simple barrel vaulting,
and massive piers typical of Romanesque churches.