Western Civilization.p

The Renaissance: Political Renewal and Intellectual Change 237

pogroms and a wave of forced conversions between
1390 and 1450. Many of these conversions were
thought to be false, and the Spanish Inquisition, an or-
ganization wholly unrelated to the Papal Inquisition,
was founded early in Ferdinand and Isabella’s reign to
root out conversoswho had presumably returned to the
faith of their ancestors. Large numbers of converts were
executed or forced to do penance during the 1480s,
and their property was confiscated to help finance the
Granadan war. The Inquisition, as a church court, had
jurisdiction over only those who had been baptized.
The Jews who had escaped forced conversion were
comparatively few and usually poor, but even a small
minority was seen as a threat to the faith of the conver-
sos.Those who still refused conversion were at last ex-
pelled. Some fled to Portugal, only to be expelled by
the Portuguese as well in 1496. Others went to North

Africa or found refuge within the Turkish Empire, while

a few eventually settled in the growing commercial

cities of the Low Countries.

The war for Granada and the supplies of money

guaranteed by the perpetual taxes and cooperative leg-

islature of Castile enabled Ferdinand to create a formi-

dable army that was put to almost constant use in the

last years of the reign. Through bluff, diplomacy, and

hard fighting, he restored Cerdanya and Rosseló to

Cataluña and conquered the ancient kingdom of

Navarre. When Charles VIII of France invaded Italy in

1495, Ferdinand used his actions as a pretext to inter-

vene. This first phase of the Italian wars lasted until

1513. Under the command of Gonsalvo de Córdoba,
      “the Great Captain,” Spanish armies devised a new
      method of combining pikes with shot that defeated the
      French and their Swiss mercenaries and drove them

Ebro

R.

Danube

R.

Rhin

eR

.

Po R.

Euphrat

esR

.

Atlantic

Ocean

North

Sea

Mediterranean Sea

Black Sea

Dnie

perR

.

Adr

iati

cSe

a

Dublin

DENMARK

London

Calais

Cologne

Paris

Hamburg LübeckBrandenburg

Cracow

Buda Pest

Belgrade

Rome Naples

Venice

Genoa

Milan

Orléans

Poitiers

Lyons

Barcelona

Granada

Córdoba

Lisbon

Toledo

Tunis

Athens

Constantinople

Alexandria

Jerusalem

Smolensk

Azov

Moscow

Novgorod

Riga

Mainz Prague Kiev

Sardinia

Corsica

Sicily

Crete Cyprus

Pyrenees

Mts.

Al

ps

Mts.

TaurusMts.

HABSBURG

LANDS

SCOTLAND

IRELAND

NORWAY SWEDEN

PORTUGAL

ARAGON

NAVARRE

CASTILE

FRANCE

BURGUNDY

HOLY

ROMAN

EMPIRE

POLAND

TEUTONIC

ORDER

LITHUANIA

MOLDAVIA

HUNGARY

BULGARIA

SERBIA

MONTENEGRO

RUMELIA

OTTOMAN EMPIRE

MAMLUK SULTANATE

PAPAL

STATES

PRINCIPALITY

OF MOSCOW

BOHEMIA

CRIMEA

WALES

ENGLAND

Stockholm

HABSBURG

LANDS

Baleari

cIsla

nds

Carpathia

n

M

ts

.

Nuremberg

Florence

Augsburg Vienna

Oxford

Danzig

Edinburgh

DonR.

0 300 600 Miles

0 300 600 900 Kilometers

MAP 13.1

Europe in the Renaissance