Western Civilization.p

Ancient Greece to the End of the Peloponnesian Wars27

flowed eastward into Asia Minor. The Phrygians who
toppled the weakened fragments of the Hittite Empire
and the Philistines who descended on the Canaanite
coast were almost certainly among them, for all of these
events occurred at about the same time.
Recent scholarship casts doubt on the theory of a
Dorian invasion, but by the ninth century B.C.the
Greek world was divided into two major subgroups, the
Dorians, who dominated most of the peninsula, and the
Ionians, who inhabited Attica, Euboia, and the east.
They spoke different dialects but shared many aspects
of a common culture. Both groups thought of the
Greek-speaking world as Hellas and referred to them-
selves as Hellenes.
The religion of the Greeks was based on an ex-
tended family of twelve gods who were supposed to in-
habit Mt. Olympus in northeastern Greece. The
greatest were Zeus, the father of the Gods; his consort,
Hera; and his brother Poseidon, the god of the sea and
of earthquakes. Hestia, the goddess of hearths, and
Demeter, often associated with the earlier Earth
Mother, were his sisters. His children were Aphrodite,
goddess of love; Apollo, god of the Sun, music, and po-
etry; Ares, god of war; Athena, goddess of wisdom and
the fine arts; Hephaestus, god of fire and metallurgy;
and Hermes, their messenger, who was also god of
commerce and other matters that involved cleverness
or trickery. Perhaps the most popular was Artemis, the
virgin nature goddess who symbolized chastity and to
whom women prayed for help in childbirth.
The Greeks conceived of these deities in human
terms, though the gods were immortal and possessed
superhuman powers. Because Olympian behavior was
often capricious and immoral, Greek ethical principles
in the Archaic Period were derived not from divine pre-
cepts but from commonsense notions of how to get
along with one’s neighbors. Worship meant offering
prayers and sacrifices in return for divine protection or
to secure the goodwill of the spirits who ruled over par-
ticular localities. Little or no hope of personal immor-
tality seemed to exist. By the eighth century B.C.,
centers of worship open to all Greeks had been estab-
lished at several locations. Olympia, dedicated to Zeus,
and the shrine of Poseidon at Corinth were famous for
athletic contests held annually in the god’s honor. The
shrine of Apollo at Delphi was home to the Delphic or-
acle, whose cryptic predictions were widely sought un-
til Roman times.
Common shrines, and above all the Olympic
games, provided unifying elements in a culture that
would for centuries remain politically fragmented. The

games drew men (women were not permitted to com-

pete) from every part of the Greek world and provided

a peaceful arena for the competitive spirit that was a

great part of ancient Greek life. Winners were praised

by poets (see document 2.2) and showered with gifts

by their grateful communities. All Greek men partici-

pated in sports, for they saw athletics as an essential

component of the good life. Physical fitness prepared

them for war, but competition lay at the heart of their

concept of personal worth, and athletic success was

seen as almost godlike.

DOCUMENT 2.2

Pindar: Ode to an Athlete

Pindar (c. 518–c. 438 b.c.) was a native of Thebes and one

of the greatest lyric poets of ancient Greece. He is best known

for odes composed in honor of successful athletes. Many—

such as Isthmian V: For Phylakidas of Aegina, Win-

ner in the Trial of Strength,presented here—were

commissioned by the athlete’s native cities. Pindar often in-

cluded a brief warning against hubris,the fatal pride that

leads men to challenge the gods.

In the struggle of the games he has won

The glory of his desire,

Whose hair is tied with thick garlands

For victory with his hands

Or swiftness of foot.

Men’s valor is judged by their fates,

But two things alone

Look after the sweetest grace of life

Among the fine flowers of wealth.

If a man fares well and hears his good name

spoken,

Seek not to become a Zeus!

You have everything, if a share

Of those beautiful things come to you.

Mortal ends befit mortal men.

For you Phylakidas, at the Isthmus

A double success is planted and thrives,

And at Nemea for you and your brother Pytheas

In the Trial of Strength. My heart tastes song.

Pindar.The Odes of Pindar,p. 47, trans. C. M. Bowra. Har-

mondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1969. Copyright ©

The Estate of C. M. Bowra, 1969. Reproduced by permission

of Penguin Books Ltd.