466 Chapter 24
economies in which “man has exploited man” and called
for a new order based upon the principle “from each
according to his capacity, to each according to his
productivity.”
Charles Fourier proposed utopian communities,
which he called phalansteries. Fourier envisioned an
idealistic, but highly structured, society whose mem-
bers shared labor and freedom. Other pioneers called
for a cooperative socialism of workers, a Christian
socialism based upon Jesus’s devotion to the poor, or a
democratic socialism, on the theory that the poor
would have a majority in a true democracy and create a
socialist society. The champion of democratic socialism
was a French journalist, Louis Blanc, who developed the
idea of a strong socialist state that regulated the econ-
omy and provided work for the unemployed in national
workshops.
A final doctrine of social change, feminism, had
not yet acquired that name (a late nineteenth-century
coinage) but already called for reconsideration of theSPAIN
PORTUGALFRANCEBELGIUMENGLAND
IRELANDSCOTLANDNETHERLANDSITALYSWITZERLANDDENMARKSWEDENNORWAYFINLANDGERMANYAUSTRIA-HUNGARYMONTENEGROSERBIA
BULGARIAOTTOMAN EMPIRRUSSIAROMANIAALBANIA
GREECEDneip
erR
.Danueb
R.Po R.Seine R.Rh
ine
R.Ebro
R.BalticSeaAtlantic
Ocean
Mediterranean SeaNorth
SeaBlack SeaSPANISHPORTUGUESEBASQUEBRETON
FRENCHCATALANPROVENCALWALLOONDUTCHERSEGAELICWELSH
CORNISHENGLISH
FLEMISH GERMANITALIANGREEKALBANIANBULGARIANTURKISHROMANIAN
CROATIAN
SERBIANSLOVENIANHUNGARIAN
(MAGYAR)SLOVAKIANCZECHPOLISHUKRAINIANRUTHENIANRHAETO-
ROMANCEWHITE
RUSSIANGREAT
RUSSIANLITHUANIANLATVIAN
(LETTISH)ESTONIANFINNISHSWEDISH
NORWEGIANDANISHCorsicaSardiniaSicilyCreteBalearicIslandsCyprus
Slavic
Hellenic
GermanicLatin
OtherCeltic
BalticRoot language groups0 250 500 Miles0 250 500 750 KilometersMAP 24.2
Language Distribution in Nineteenth-Century Europe