The Rise of the Roman Republic65probably averaged no more than two or three acres—
twenty acres was regarded as a substantial estate—the
intensive cultivation of many different crops provided
them with a measure of self-sufficiency (see illustration
4.3). Wherever possible, grain was planted between
rows of vines or olive trees and replaced with beans or
other legumes in alternate years, for the Romans prac-
ticed crop rotation and were careful to enrich the soil
through composting and animal fertilizers. Because graz-
ing land was scarce, there was never enough manure.
Sheep were raised for their wool and for milk, while cat-
tle were used mainly as draft animals. Everyone tried to
maintain a miniature orchard of apples, pears, or figs.
This kind of farming required skill and a great deal
of effort in virtually every month of the year. Fields had
to be plowed at least three times, then hoed frequently
during the growing season to reduce soil temperature
and preserve moisture. Water was always a problem in
the hot, dry Italian summer and often had to be carried
from some distance to irrigate the garden vegetables.
Compost piles, which used every bit of organic matter
available, needed water as well as frequent turning with
the pitchfork. The successful cultivation of vineyards
and fruit trees demanded clever techniques for grafting
and pruning.
Heroic efforts produced a balanced but simple diet:
wheat or barley gruel supplemented by olives, cabbage,
and beans. Milk, cheese, fruit, and baked bread pro-
vided variety, but meat—usually pork—was reserved
for special occasions. Sheep, goats, and cattle were too
valuable to be slaughtered for their meat but sometimes
found their way to the table after serving as burnt offer-
ings to the gods. Hogs, which could root in the oak
forests or in other waste spaces, provided not onlyDOCUMENT 4.1
Livy: Roman Tactics at the Time of the Samnite Wars
Titus Livius (59 B.C.–A.D. 17), known as Livy, was the greatest his-
torian of ancient Rome. Writing with the patronage of the Emperor
Augustus, Livy compiled a history of Rome from its origins to 9 B.C.
This work, known as The Annals of the Roman People,con-
sisted of 142 books; only 35 of these (plus fragments) have survived.
Livy was a conservative analyst who stressed the traditional strengths
of Rome, such as the citizen army. The following excerpt from Livy’s
history explains the organization of the army during the Samnite
Wars (343–341 B.C.) of the early republic.
The foremost line consisted of the hastati,forming 15
maniples [companies] stationed a short distance from each
other. This front line... consisted of the flower of the
young men who were growing ripe for service. Behind
them were stationed an equal number of maniples, called
principes,made up of men of a more stalwart age.... This
body of 30 maniples was called the antepilanibecause be-
hind the standards there were stationed 15 other compa-
nies, each of which was divided into three sections, the
first section being called the pilius.The company consisted
of three vexilla[banners]. A single vexillumhad 60 soldiers,
two centurions, and one vexillarius,or color-bearer; the
company numbered 186 men. The first vexillumled the tri-
arii,veterans of proven courage; the second, the rorarii,or
skirmishers, younger and less distinguished men; the
third, the accensi,who were least to be depended upon and
were therefore assigned to the rearmost line.
When an army had been drawn up in these ranks,
the hastatiwere the first of all to engage. If the hastati
failed to repulse the enemy, they slowly retired through
the intervals between the companies of the principes,who
then took up the fight, the hastatifollowing in their rear.
The triarii,meanwhile, were kneeling under their stan-
dards with left leg advanced, their shields leaning against
their shoulders, and their spears planted in the ground
with points obliquely upward, as if their battle line were
fortified by a bristling palisade. If the principeswere also
unsuccessful, they slowly retired from the battle line to
the triarii(which has given rise to the proverbial saying,
when people are in great trouble, “matters have come
down to the triarii”). When the triariihad admitted the
hastatiand principesthrough the intervals between their
companies, they rose up and, instantly closing their
companies up, blocked the lanes, as it were, and in one
compact mass fell on the enemy, there being no more re-
serves left behind them. The enemy, who had pursued
the others as though they had defeated them, saw with
the greatest dread a new line suddenly rising up with in-
creased numbers.
Livy. “History of Rome,” book 8, from Roman Civilization: Third
Edition: 2. Vol. Set.Naphtali and Meyer Rheinhold, eds. Copyright
© 1990, Columbia University Press. Reprinted with permission of the
publisher.