Social, Political, and Economic Structures of Imperial Rome 87and a former Caesarian governor named Lepidus—and
together they formed the Second Triumvirate. To con-
solidate their position and, above all to pay their le-
gions, they launched a proscription that led to the
death of more than three hundred senators, including
Cicero, and two thousand equestrians who had, by def-
inition, no part in politics. Octavian then turned his
army against Brutus, who had taken refuge in Macedon,
while Antony defeated Cassius in Syria. In the course
of these actions, both of Caesar’s assassins were killed
in battle.
Octavian and Antony were the dominant figures of
the triumvirate. With the removal of Lepidus in 36 B.C.,
they divided the empire between them. Octavian took
the west; Antony, the east. Realizing that conflict with
Octavian was inevitable, Antony turned for assistance
to the Egyptian queen Cleopatra VII (69–30 B.C.). A
woman of great charm and intelligence, Cleopatra was
determined not only to revive the power of the
Ptolemies, but also to play a part in Roman affairs (see
illustration 5.2). To that end she had become Julius
Caesar’s mistress and traveled to Rome where she bore
him a son. When Caesar died, she returned to Alexan-
dria and arranged for the murder of her brother, who
was also her husband and coruler according to the
Egyptian custom. Now sole ruler of Egypt, she hoped
that through Antony she could preserve the empire of
the Ptolemies for herself and her children.
For his part, Antony needed the immense wealth of
the Ptolemies to defeat Octavian. The alliance of
Antony and Cleopatra resulted in the birth of twins as
well as in a formidable conjunction of military and fi-
nancial power. Octavian, in a skillful propaganda cam-
paign, portrayed himself as the champion of Rome and
the west against the decadent east as symbolized by the
Egyptian queen. In 31 B.C. he defeated Antony and
Cleopatra at the naval battle of Actium and followed
them to Alexandria where, in the summer of A.D. 30,
they both committed suicide.
Octavian became the undisputed ruler of the west-
ern world. With characteristic subtlety, he asked only
that he be called princeps,or first citizen, and moved
over the next seven years to consolidate his influence in
ways that would not offend the Senate or other tradi-
tionalists. He treated the senators with courtesy, ex-
panding their numbers and increasing their legislative
power, but his much vaunted partnership with the Sen-
ate was a sham. The real basis of his power was procon-
sular authority over Spain, Gaul, and Syria, the border
provinces that contained a majority of the legions. Af-
ter 23 B.C. his proconsular authority was extended to
Rome, and he was awarded the powers of a tribune, to
be renewed annually for the remainder of his life. This
enabled him to participate in the assemblies and gave
him veto power over their legislation. As tribune, his
person was also sacrosanct, though the Senate, in 27
B.C., had already granted him the semidivine title Au-
gustus (see illustration 5.3). After 23 B.C. he left con-
sular authority to others, accepting the office only on
occasion.
In person, the new Augustus tried to appear modest
and unassuming (see document 5.3). As an administra-
tor, he was without equal. By controlling the electoral
apparatus, Augustus made certain that magistracies
went to men of ability with little regard for their ori-
gins. Provincial administration, a disgrace under the
later republic, was greatly improved. Wherever possi-Illustration 5.2
Portrait Bust of Cleopatra.Cleopatra, the last of the Ptole-
maic dynasty, failed to preserve Egypt’s independence from
Rome. Her defeat at Actium in 31 B.C. and subsequent suicide
paved the way for Octavian’s triumph.