90 Chapter 5
place named Nerva, who ushered in the age of the five
good emperors. Neither Nerva nor the three emperors
who followed him (Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus
Pius) had sons, and each appointed a successor who
was acceptable to both the Senate and the legions.
(The fifth emperor of the period was Marcus Aurelius.)
The age of the five good emperors (A.D. 96–180)
was later remembered as one of exceptional happiness.
The pax romanaor Roman Peace described by Plutarch
seemed to be a permanent condition, and trade flour-
ished. Trajan and Hadrian sponsored lavish building
programs, and Trajan introduced the alimenta,a subsidy
to help poor parents in raising their children. All five
emperors refined and strengthened imperial administra-
tion, but the possibility of military intervention re-
mained. The Stoic philosopher Marcus Aurelius (ruled
A.D. 161–180) broke the tradition of appointment by
merit, not only by having a son, but also by having the
poor judgment to leave him the throne. The reign of
Commodus, from A.D. 180 to 192, was a disaster that
ended in yet another military revolt. But by this time
the empire was experiencing difficulties that had little
to do with the personality of its rulers.Art, Literature, and Thought
in Imperial Rome
Throughout the late republic and early empire, the cul-
ture of Rome’s elite remained heavily dependent upon
Greek models. Painting and sculpture were an integralDOCUMENT 5.4
Plutarch: The Pax Romana
The pax romanareferred to the peace within the empire
that had been established by Augustus. Though it did not
preclude a number of regional revolts, it was a remarkable
achievement and, as this sensible if unheroic passage from
Precepts of Slatecraftmakes clear, the primary justifica-
tion for Roman rule.The greatest blessings that cities can enjoy are
peace, prosperity, populousness, and concord. As
far as peace is concerned, the people have no need
of political activity, for all war, both Greek and
foreign, has been banished and has disappeared
from among us. Of liberty the people enjoy as
much as our rulers allot them, and perhaps more
would not be better. A bounteous productiveness
of soil; a mild, temperate climate; wives bearing
“children like their sires” [a quotation from Hes-
iod] and security for their offspring—these are the
things that a wise man will ask for his fellow citi-
zens in his prayers to the gods.
Plutarch. “Precepts of Statecraft,” 32, from Roman Civiliza-
tion: Third Edition, 2 Vol. Set,Naphtali Lewis and Meyer Rhein-
hold, eds. Copyright © 1990, Columbia University Press.
Reprinted with permission of the publisher.IIllustration 5.4
Base of the Column of Antoninus
Pius.This scene shows the apotheosis
of the emperor Antoninus (reigned A.D.
138–161) and his wife, Faustina; that is,
the imperial pair are in the process of
becoming gods after their death. Based
on the symbolism of the eagles, they are
about to become the new Jupiter and
Juno, an indication of how the imperial
office had become deified.