Real Communication An Introduction

486 Part 4  Public Speaking

A variation on this layout is to use a problem–

cause–solution format, making the second point the

cause of the problem. This format is often useful

because getting your listeners to understand the cause

helps them reflect on the problem, and it makes your

solution seem plausible or even inevitable. In the fol-

lowing example, the first main point proves the prob-

lem, the second main point proves the cause, and the

third main point offers a solution:

Thesis: United States presidents should be able to

serve more than two terms.

Main point 1: Acceptance of foreign and domestic

politics is harmed by changes in administrations.

Main point 2: Historically, our country’s greatest

periods of weakness have occurred with changes in

the presidency.

Main point 3: The American people should choose

whether a president is worthy of serving up to four consecutive terms.

This type of format tends to work particularly well when you are presenting

a proposition of policy because it often proposes a course of action or a series of

steps to achieve resolution.

Refutational Organizational Pattern

If people in your audience have strong objections to a position you are promot-

ing, you will be wise to present, and then refute, their arguments against your

main point; it can be an effective way to engage, if not fully persuade, an audi-

ence (Allen, 1991; O’Keefe, 1999). In the refutational organizational pattern,

speakers begin by presenting main points that are opposed to their own position

and then follow them with main points that support their own position. Though

you can use this pattern when the opposing side has weak arguments that you

can easily attack, it is to your advantage to select—and then disprove—the strong-

est points that support the opposing position (DiSanza & Legge, 2002). This

may win over uncertain audience members, or even those in a hostile audience

who initially disagree with your stance.

In your first main point, you should present the opposing position. Describe

that claim and identify at least one key piece of evidence that supports it. In the

second main point, you should present the possible effects or implications of

that claim. Your third main point should present arguments and evidence for

your own position. The final main point should contrast your position with the

one that you started with and leave no doubt in the listeners’ minds of the supe-

riority of your viewpoint. For example:

Thesis: Universities are justified in distributing condoms to students free of

charge or at reduced prices.

WHEN SPEAKING
ABOUT recycling, you might
use the problem–solution pat-
tern to clearly establish the
problem before persuading
your audience with a solu-
tion. RL Productions/Getty Images