542 Appendix B Understanding Mass and Mediated Communicationstrong personal connection to the issue (Matthes, 2013) or to their party identity
(Hartmann & Tanis, 2013). In a nutshell, that means we tend to see those with
whom we agree as less biased than those with whom we disagree.
Critics on the right and the left agree that bias in the media is also a function
of the economics and constraints of the news-gathering process itself (Farnsworth
& Lichter, 2010). The 24/7 news cycle with multiple technological outlets to fill
may lead to overreliance on easy sources—particularly spokespersons for govern-
ment or interest groups. Journalists must also simplify complex issues and put
them into a context that audiences understand (Scheufele & Tewksbury, 2007).
Framing refers to the way issues in the news get presented in order to relate to
audiences’ existing schemas (Scheufele & Iyengar, 2012). For example, during
election campaigns, the news often frames each candidate’s actions as though
they were maneuvers in a “horse race” (for example, “Will this new revelation
pull the candidate ahead? What will the opposition do to try to stay in the
lead?”). Such framing is important because public impressions of candidates and
campaign events may become a function of who is ahead or behind in the “race,”
rather than an evaluation of each candidate’s detailed positions on issues.Effects of Mass Media
James gets in trouble at school for trying to kickbox his classmates like they do
in video games. Olivia watches a lot of televised high school dramas and wor-
ries that appearing too “smart” will make boys not like her. Are media messages
influencing the attitudes and behaviors of these kids? We have already seen how
audiences and other factors shape media messages. In this section, we will explore
the research and theories on how mass media messages might actually shape us.Selectivity and the Active Audience
Do you remember all the commercials you saw last night? Did you read every
status update that every one of your friends posted on Facebook? As we discussed
in Chapter 6, we make specific choices about which messages we will select and
attend to. This selectivity means that audiences are not passive sponges that
absorb everything media throw at them. Rather, many communication scholars
argue that audiences, even children, are instead active cognitive processors of
information (Huston, Bickham, Lee, & Wright, 2007). Being active does not
mean, however, that we critically evaluate the messages we see (although we can
certainly do that); it means that we look for cues that tell us whether something
on TV (or in other media) is interesting, relevant, or otherwise worth noticing
(Valkenburg & Vroone, 2004). It also refers to the idea that different people
have different reactions and interpretations of media messages (Morley, 2006).
The concepts of selectivity and an active audience suggest that media effects are
much more limited than we might otherwise believe.Uses and Gratifications
Rather than looking at what media do to us, the uses and gratifications perspective
focuses on what we do with media—that is, the way we make media choicess ( w o & m m t F aWhere do you get your
news? Do you detect any
bias on the part of your
sources—that is, do you
find yourself agreeing or
disagreeing with the things
they say or write? Is there
a difference between news
reports and opinion shows?AND YOU?
CONNECT
In Chapter 2, we discuss
how schemas help us to
make sense of our world.
When consuming media,
we should remember that
messages are usually
framed in a way to appeal
(or not!) to us. For this rea-
son, it’s often a good idea
to view news sources from
a variety of viewpoints to
help form a more fully real-
ized perspective.CONNECT
As we learned in Chapter
6, the listening process in-
volves a series of decisions
about which messages
we will select and attend
to. This process is espe-
cially important in how we
process mass media mes-
sages—the sheer volume
of messages means that
media must present ap-
pealing, clever, and memo-
rable messages in order to
compete for our attention.19_OHA_45766_App_B_530_556.indd 54219_OHA_45766_App_B_530_556.indd 542 13/10/14 5:39 PM13/10/14 5:39 PM