3 CONFERENCES AT PRAGUE AND BERGEN AND THE LOOMING WAR 287aftermath of the World War; disarmament; existing international institu-
tions; the problems of the Americas and the Far East; an inter-democracy
federal union; the possible bases of organising peace in Europe; peaceful
change; peace enforcement; markets and raw materials; and the possibil-
ities of world organisation.^157 The commission did not put its expertise
solely at the disposal of the public: it placed it also at the disposal of the
United States’ government and later a nascent United Nations.^158
Shotwell was among those who wrote into part thirteen of the Labour
Section of the Treaty of Versailles that ‘[p]ermanent peace rests upon
social justice’.^159 The basis for this statement concerning the relation
between peace and social justice was the conviction that no nation can be
regarded as ‘safe’ in its dealings with other nations unless it adhered to a
high standard of justice in its dealings with its own citizens, a conviction
which the behaviour of dictatorial regimes in the interwar years served
to greatly reinforce.^160 Charles DeBenedetti observes that Shotwell’s
approach to international relations coincided with the belief ‘in the
importance of independent expert authorities for the building of world
order’ and with ‘evolving Functional beliefs in the primacy of interna-
tional social welfare activities.’^161
DeBenedetti states that where Shotwell differed somewhat from the
leaders of the functionalist school was in his greater emphasis on collec-
tive security mechanisms.^162 Shotwell’s emphasis on collective security
mechanisms partly explains why Shotwell stated in a paper published
in July 1940 in a volume of the Annals of the American Academy of
Political and Social Science which was dedicated to the topic of ‘When
Peace Comes,’ that France ‘had the right idea’ in saying ‘rightly that
the way to disarm is to give nations that sense of security that will
(^157) Ibid., 320. The dates of the broadcasts on behalf of the Commission to Study the
Organisation of Peace subsequent to the first broadcast were as follows: February 3, 10,
17, 24; March 2, 9, 16, 23, 30; April 6, 13, 20, 27 and May 11. There was another broad-
cast on November 9, 1940.
(^158) Ibid., and James T. Shotwell, ‘International Organization,’ Annals of the American
Academy of Political and Social Sciences 210, no. 1 (1940): 19–23, 19.
(^159) Shotwell, ‘International Organization,’ 21.
(^160) Ibid., and DeBenedetti, ‘James T. Shotwell and the Science of International Politics,’
391.
(^161) DeBenedetti, ‘James T. Shotwell and the Science of International Politics,’ 392.
(^162) Ibid.