52 J.-A. PEMBERTON
taught at Oxford within the framework of a programme of philosophy
and politics, Manning pointed out that as an instructor in London in a
school of the social sciences, he was far from neglecting the existence of
moral facts: international relations, considered as an aspect of real life,
that is, as ‘an aspect of social life such as we support it on this planet
in current conditions,’ necessarily encompasses moral facts. Indeed, he
stated that it is ‘the duty of savants to underline their existence’ and their
generally controversial nature, albeit adding that one would render one-
self guilty of a breach of one’s duty if in the course of instruction one
advanced one’s personal opinions and sentiments.^162
tHe mAdrid conference: tHe study meeting
The framing of the debate on peaceful change well illustrated the com-
mon understanding that in the context of the study of international rela-
tions, non-material factors were of paramount importance. As Bourquin
noted in the introductory report he issued as general rapporteur of the
study meeting on peaceful change, the analysis of the economic, social
and territorial problems giving rise to demands for changes to the status
quo, required a ‘double effort’: one of ‘measure’ and one of ‘compre-
hension’ of both the ‘needs’ for and ‘resistances’ to changes to the status
quo.^163 In noting this, Bourquin was drawing attention to the fact that
while population pressures, opportunities for migration, the distribution
of colonies, and access to markets and raw materials were all susceptible,
in one way or another, to measurement, ‘psychological factors’ involved
in demands for and resistance to territorial changes are not: they require
understanding.^164
Bourquin stated that what members of the conference needed to
investigate was the extent to which those desirous of maintaining the sta-
tus quo and who, therefore, resist demands for its transformation, were
simply preoccupied with their economic well-being or whether their
resistance was driven, in whole or in part, by such factors as a ‘care for
prestige, the action of certain ideologies, or reasons of an order psycho-
logical or moral.’ Equally, Bourquin added, the attitudes and not just the
(^162) Intellectual Coopération (b), nos. 68–69 (1936), 12, and Manning, ‘Observations sur
l’enseignement universitaire des relations internationales,’ 53.
(^163) Coopération Intellectuelle, nos. 66–67 (1936), 9–10, 13.
(^164) Ibid., 9.