schools. Such practices ended – in theory – in 1954 with Brown v. Board of
Education, when the Supreme Court struck down separate but equal
policies. The most blatant forms of segregation lessened, but Latino/a
children were – and are still – peripheralized, segregated, unfairly and
incorrectly funneled into special education classrooms, denied
opportunities readily available to Anglos, and forbidden to speak their own
language even in one-on-one conversations on the playground.
Gandara and Orfield (2010) and Po (2010) present a stark picture of
linguistic segregation in Arizona schools while Bratt’s “Violence in the
Curriculum: Compulsory Linguistic Discrimination in the Arizona-Sonora
Borderlands” (2007) is a sobering look at the way institutionalized
linguistic discrimination puts teachers and children on opposite sides of a
great gulf, creating an antagonism that can, in extreme moments, end in
physical violence. In Bratt’s experience in Arizona, school districts create
extreme English-Only policies tougher than the State guidelines, so that
“teachers in more than one elementary district in rural Arizona are
summarily fired if they are heard speaking Spanish, even to prevent an
accident on the playground” (ibid.: 3).
Structured programs designed to help English language learners toward
proficiency have had exactly the opposite result (Gandara and Orfield
2010), in large part because English speakers and English learners rarely
interact, so that those with limited English proficiency are isolated from
those situations where English is spoken:
Our analysis of the hyper-segregation of Hispanic students, and
particularly Spanish-speaking [English language learners], suggests
that little or no attention has been given to the consequences of
linguistic isolation for a population whose future depends on the
acquisition of English ... For ELLs, interaction with ordinary
English-speaking peers is essential to their English language
development and consequently to their acquisition of academic
English.
(Gifford and Valdés 2006: as cited in Gandara and Orfield 2010)There have been periods when Arizona’s policies emerged from the grip of
moral panic to more inclusive approaches.^15 A broad bilingual-education
program was put in place in the 1990s, which resulted in the hiring of