Special Providence_ American Foreign Policy and How It Changed World - Walter Russell Mead

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toknowifithasbeenmanagedforthebenefitofthenobleandwealthy
ofthecountry,orforthepoorandorphan."26WestPoint,thunderedthe
futureMassachusettssenatorandReconstructionheavyweightCharles
Sumnerin1845,was"aseminaryofidlenessandvice."27Forsometime
itwas unclearthatthedangerousinstitutionwouldsurvive. Ulysses
Grant,whowenttoWestPointonlybecausehisfatherforcedhimto,
eagerlyfollowedcongressionaldiscussionsofa proposaltoclosetheinsti-
tutionduringhisplebeyear.Butaftera closeandbitterdebatethepro-
posalwasdefeated,andafteranabortiveattempttogethimselfexpelled,
Grantresignedhimselftotheprospectofa militarycareer.^28
Thepopulistdisdainstillfeltfor"careerpoliticians"wasatonetime
alsoextendedtocareersoldiers,withtheaddedworrythatcareersoldiers
(knowingnotradebutwar,dependentontheir politicalmasters for
employmentandadvancement)wouldbeatbestadvocatesofwarlike
policiesandatworstthewillingtoolsofanycentralgovernmentwishing
tosubvertpopularliberties.
ThusJeffersoniansopposedtheestablishmentofa peacetimestand-
ingarmy.ThentheyopposedtheestablishmentofWestPoint.With
WestPointa factoflife,theydidtheirbesttokeepitonshortcommons
(withnotoriouslystingyappropriations)and,bygivingthepowerof
appointmenttorepresentativesandsenators, didtheirbesttoensure
congressionalcontroloverthisdangerousinstitution.FinallyJeffersoni-
anssupportedmilitiasand,later,thevariousNationalGuardformations
asalternativesandsupplementstoa professionalstandingarmy.
Theirapproachtothenavywasevenmoredraconian.Jeffersonians
wantednavalappropriationskepttotheabsoluteminimum.Therewas
nothingsolikelytogettheUnitedStatesinvolvedinforeignquarrelsas
a blue-waternavy.Thelargerthenavythemorepressuretherewouldbe
ontheUnitedStatestodefendvariouscommercialandhumanitarian
"interests"infar-offlands,andthemerepresenceofAmericanforcesin
foreignportsmadeconfrontationsmorelikely.In 1872 anAmericanves-
selintheportofSmyrnacameclosetofiringonanAustro-Hungarian
vesselina controversyovertheimprisonmentofaHungariancitizen
whohaddeclaredhisintentionofbecominganAmericancitizen.^29 Why,
askedJeffersonians,shouldquestionsofwarandpeacebelefttococky
navalcommandersindistantlands?Keeptheshipshome,andtherewill
befewerfights.
Jeffersoniansdevelopedtheoriesofcoastaldefenseandcoastalfortifi-
cationtodivertspendingfromblue-water-navyvesselstocoastalbarges