Special Providence_ American Foreign Policy and How It Changed World - Walter Russell Mead

TheAmericanForeignPolicyTradition 23

TheCivilWar,ofcourse,sawtheUnitedStatesandBritainapproach
thebrinkofwar.OnlynarrowlywaswaravertedwhentheBritishnegli-
gentlyallowedConfederatecommerceraiderstofitoutinBritishports.
Foryearsafterthewar,AmericanandBritishdiplomatswouldrattle
theirsabersinnegotiationsovercompensationfordamagesinflictedby
ConfederateshipsliketheA/abama.^44
RelationsbetweentheUnitedStatesandGreatBritaindidnotdeci-
sivelyimproveuntilthefinal decadeofthenineteenthcentury,when
Britain'sfearsofsuchrisingEuropeanpowersasRussi~andGermanyled
ittoadopta moreconciliatory,evencringing,toneinitsdealingswith
theUnitedStates.
TheUnitedStatesalsohada troubledrelationshipwithSpain.A long
andnotparticularlyedifyingdiplomaticcampaignofthreats,baseless
claims, bribery,and intimidationresulted inthe Spanish cession of
FloridatotheUnitedStatesby1819.TheUnitedStatesmadeknownits
hostilitytoanyattemptbySpaintoreestablishitsruleoveritslostSouth
Americancolonies,andinstabilityinCubabroughttheUnitedStates
andSpaintosword'spointsseveraltimesbeforeitfinallyeruptedinthe
Spanish-AmericanWar.BetweenfreelanceattacksbyprivateAmerican
citizensknownasfilibusters,violationofAmericanneutralitylawsin
supportofCuban rebels, anddiplomaticmaneuvers like theOstend
Manifesto, Americanpolicytoward Spainwas marked by aggressive
designsanddisregardforinternationallaw,untilWilliamMcKinleyput
a finalendtofourcenturiesofSpanishpowerintheWesternHemisphere
andthePacific.
AlthoughFranceandtheUnitedStateshadfewerpointsofcontact
afterNapoleongaveuphisdreamsofNorthAmericanempireandsold
LouisianatoJefferson,therelationsbetweenParisandWashingtonwere
alsorockyattimesinthenineteenthcentury.TheUnitedStatesand
FranceskirtedarmedconflictduringJackson'sadministrationwhenhe
senta navalexpeditiontobackuphisthreatsafterFrancefailedtohonor
agreementsrelatingtocompensationforAmericanshippinglossesdur-
ingthe NapoleonicWars. BothduringandaftertheCivilWar, the
United States an~ France were regularly engaged in harassing.and
threateningeachother.NapoleonIIIopenlysoughtthebreakupofthe
UnitedStatesandtheindependenceoftheSouth;hisattempttoestab-
lishapuppetemperorinMexicowhiletheUnitedStateswasdistracted
bytheCivilWarwas thegrossestandmostdangerouschallengethe
MontoeDoctrineeverfaced. French troopswerenotwithdrawnfrom
MexicountilGen.UlyssesS.Grant,almostimmediatelyafterAppomat-