26 SPECIALPROVIDENCETheU.S.Navyhasmaintaineda globalpresencemuchlongerthan
mostAmericansrealize.The permanentMediterraneansquadronwas
establishedin 1815 tokeeptheBarbarypiratesincheck.In 1822 the
UnitedStatesestablisheditsWestIndianandPacificsquadrons,thelat-
terchargedwithprotectingAmericanwhalersandcommercialinterests
inSouthAmericaandtheSouthSeaislands.In 1826 thiswasfollowed
bya BrazilorSouthAtlanticsquadron,withtheEastIndiasquadronfol-
lowingin 1835 andtheAfricansquadronestablishedoffthewestcoastof
Africain1843.Inotherwords,duringtheperiodofAmericaninnocence
andisolation,theUnitedStateshadforces stationedonornearevery
majorcontinentintheworld;itsnavywasactiveinvirtuallyeveryocean,
itstroopssawcombatonvirtuallyeverycontinent,anditsforeignrela-
tionswereina perpetualstateofcrisisandturmoil.
Theimportanceofforeignpolicy inAmericanpolitics was even
greaterthanthislistwouldindicate.Foreignpolicyanddomesticpoli-
ticswereinextricablymixedthroughoutAmericanhistory.Thequestion
ofAmericanindependencewas,ofcourse,anissueofforeignrelations,
andtheformationoftheFrenchalliancewasthekeytothesuccessful
conclusionoftheRevolutionaryWar.Itisnoexaggerationtosaythatwe
owetheConstitutiontotherequirementsofforeignaffairs.Afterthe
Revolution,theinabilityoftheContinentalCongresstomanageforeign
relationsundertheArticlesofConfederationwasthefirstandforemost
reasonputforwardbythesupportersofthenewConstitutioninthegreat
nationaldebateoverratification.Thebalanceofpowerbetweenfederal
andstateauthoritiesinthenewConstitutionwasdeterminedinlarge
partbytheneedfora nationalgovernmentstrongenoughtoconductan
effectiveforeignpolicy."Myideaisthatweshouldbemadeonenationin
everycaseconcerningforeignaffairs,andseparateonesinwhatismerely
domestic,"wroteJeffersonin 1787 Y Thejealousfriendsofstates'rights
concludedthatitwasbettertoestablisha strongcentralgovernment
amongtheex-coloniesthantofacethewilesandpressuresofEuropean
empiresasa feebleanddividedconfederation.
Thisproved tobe wise. Foreignpolicyquestions dominated the
administrationsofWashingtonandAdams:TheJayTreaty;theXYZ
Affair,involvingscandalousrevelationsaboutFrenchattemptstoextract
bribesfromAmericandiplomats;thecontinuedBritishpresenceinthe
OldNorthwest;theundeclaredwarwithFrance;theGenetAffair,the
question ofwhether theUnitedStates should"tilt" towardBritain,
France,orneither-thesewerethegreatissuesoflate-eighteenth-century
Americanpolitics.