Special Providence_ American Foreign Policy and How It Changed World - Walter Russell Mead

52 SPECIALPROVIDENCE

land"-courtsmustinterpretandenforcethem,butonlyunderverynar-
rowandrestrictedcircumstancescantheSupremeCourtalterordeclare
unconstitutionala properlyratifiedtreaty.(Andstategovernmentshave
noroleatallinthisprocess.)
BythestandardsofAmericanpolitics,thisisascloseasthefederal
governmentgetstoa carteblanche.Theforeignpolicyprovisionsofthe
ConstitutionjibecloselywithAlexanderHamilton'sideasaboutthedis-
tributionofpoweramongthebranches:Hewishedfora strongexecu-
tive,anadvisorysenate,anda weakpopularassemblypossessingonlya
negativepowerofthepurse.Whenforeignpolicygetsbeyondnegotia-
tionsandmovesintoactualwar,generationsofexperiencehaveshown
thatinfactthepowersofthefederalgovernment,andespeciallyofthe
executivebranch,growevengreater.
Andyet,whileallthishasperhapsslightlyconstrictedtheforceof
democraticdebateinAmericanforeignpolicy,thefactremainsthatwe
aremoreusedtoseeingAmericanpresidentsfollowingpublicopinion
thanleadingit.Whenitcomestimetomakemajorforeignpolicydeci-
sions,domesticpoliticaladvisershaveaprominentplaceatthetableand,
inmanycases,a decisivevoice.Tomanyobservers,Americanandforeign
alike,thatisa badthingandmakesitthatmuchharderforpresidents
andsecretariesofstatetomakegoodforeignpolicy.
Finally,statesmenandpoliticalscientistsattunedtothevaluesand
historyofcontinentalstatesmanshiphaveanotherproblem-itmightbe
calleda "boundaryproblem"-ingraspingtherealityofAmericanfor-
eignpolicy.ClassicalanalysiSofforeignpolicymakesmanyassumptions
aboutwhatstatesareandhowtheyrelatetotheirsocieties.Mostofthese
analysesarerootedintheexperienceofEuropeanstatesovermanycen-
turies,andtheytendbothtoheightenthedistinctionsbetweenstateand
privateactivitiesabroadandtomarginalizetheimportanceofprivate
interactions.Whatnationsdoisforeignpolicy;whatcivilsocietyand
businessdoisnot,thoughinsomecasestheseactivitiesmayinfluence
theforeignpolicyofthestate.
Theseassumptionsandconclusionsdon'tworkaswellintheAmeri-
canas intheEuropeancontext. WhiletheAmericanstateresembles
Europeanstatesinsomeways,inothersitfollowsa logicofits own.
ThroughoutAmericanhistorythedistinctionbetweenstateandsociety
has been blurrierthan inEurope, andfewerofthe keyactivities of
Americansocietyhavebeenledorcarriedoutbythestate.
Thisisastrueinforeignpolicyasinmanyotheraspectsofnational