Marketing Communications

PRE-TESTING OF ADVERTISING 295

Communications or intermediate eff ects are measured in a sample of customers of the

target group. Th e distinction can be made between physiological tests, recall tests, direct and

indirect opinion measurement.

In a physiological test the reaction of the body to advertising stimuli is measured. Two

types of physiological measurements can be carried out. Th e fi rst involves the measurement

of arousal, i.e. the activation of the nervous system, which is merely an indication of the

intensity of the eff ect evoked by an ad. However, arousal measurement does not allow an

assessment of the direction (positive or negative) of the eff ect, but is an indication of the

primary aff ective reaction, which is assumed to trigger further processing of the ad.^5 Several

techniques are used under very strict experimental conditions. For instance, the higher the

arousal, the more the pupil of the eye dilates. Pupil dilation measurement is therefore used to

assess the amount of arousal during, for instance, a TV commercial. Another measure is the

galvanic skin response. In this method, the varying humidity of the skin is measured by

means of an electric current, on the basis of which the amount of arousal can be assessed.

Other arousal measurement techniques are heartbeat and voice pitch analysis and electro-

encephalography. Most of these techniques are complicated and expensive, while the results

are oft en diffi cult to interpret. Th erefore, they are not frequently used.

When social desirability limits the validity of explicit attitude measurement, implicit or indirect methods can be

used. They measure a person’s attitude without asking him or her for an explicit opinion. Implicit attitude measure-

ments can to a certain extent predict behaviour that is spontaneous or uncontrolled. The Implicit Association Test

(IAT) is an implicit attitude measurement technique that is based on the ease with which people make associations

between attributes and target concepts. Images, words, logos, colours, etc., can be used as target concepts, while

adjectives and nouns can be used as attributes, for instance likeable, dirty, etc. In the IAT, people are asked to react

as quickly as possible to a series of target concepts and attributes. If a person spontaneously and easily links a

concept to an attribute, the speed with which he or she reacts to a combination will be higher. The opposite can be

expected if the combination between the concept and attribute is less obvious or even appears contradictory to the

individual. A careful analysis of reaction times provides insights into the attitude of individuals towards the con-

cepts and characteristics of these concepts. The IAT can be used to measure the reaction of individuals towards

stimuli that may contain sensitive elements, or to test ads for sensitive products or issues, such as environmentally-

friendly buying behaviour, male/female stereotypes, hidden attitudes, racism, etc.^6 The results can be used to adapt

elements of the creative execution of the ad, such as the models or arguments used, the combination between

slogans and pictures, the type of appeal, etc.

RESEARCH INSIGHT

Measuring attitudes indirectly: The Implicit Association Test

For an ad to be eff ective, it has at least to be noted, and a minimum of information has to

be carried over. Th e second type of physiological measurement tries to measure the potential

of an ad to be seen. By means of a tachistoscope, print ads can be shown for a very short

period of time. Aft er exposure, the subject is asked to reproduce as many ad elements as

possible. Th e element that is most recognised aft er the shortest exposure time is supposed to

be the most eff ective one. Eye camera research^7 measures eye movements as a subject looks

at a print ad or a TV commercial. Th is technique registers what is looked at and for how long,

and can be used to improve the structure or layout of an ad. It can also be used to test in-store

communications tools and sponsorship activities.

In recall tests , such as the portfolio test, the extent to which an individual recalls a new ad

or a new execution amid existing ads is tested. Th e ad to be tested is put in a portfolio,

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