ists. It was Petrarch and a little later Poggio BRACCIOLINI
who were responsible for discovering and preserving al-
most half the writings of Cicero that we still possess, in-
cluding the letters to Atticus and a number of his most
famous orations.
Cicero’s status as a model for humanist prose writers
struggling to free themselves from medieval Latin style
likewise stemmed from Petrarch and grew virtually
unchecked, with the backing of men such as Lorenzo
VALLAand the educationist GUARINO DA VERONA, for over
a century. The powerful rhetoric of his orations, the easy
familiarity of his letters, the lucid Latin of his philosophi-
cal treatises were all enthusiastically imitated. Inevitably
there was a reaction; writers such as POLITIAN, rebuked for
using un-Ciceronian vocabulary, defended their right to
go beyond its limits in pursuit of self-expression, and
ERASMUSwrote his Ciceronianus (1528) as a withering at-
tack on the pedants who carried Ciceronianism to absurd
extremes. Nevertheless, Cicero continued to be a major
influence on Renaissance prose, not only in terms of style
but also on account of his philosophy, since many writers
found his Stoicism comparatively easy to reconcile with
their Christianity. His dialogues on friendship (De amici-
tia) and old age (De senectute) were often imitated, and the
dialogue form was also carried over into philosophical or
didactic works in the vernacular.
Ciconia, Johannes (c. 1373–1411) Franco-Flemish
composer
He received his earliest musical education as a choirboy at
St. Jean l’Evangeliste, Liège, around 1385. Before 1400 he
went to Padua where he became magister and a canon at
the cathedral, posts which he retained until his death.
Mass sections, motets, and secular works, including bal-
late, survive. An advanced approach to imitation is evi-
dent in his motets, some of which are ceremonial,
occasional works. These date largely from his time in
Padua, and include two isorhythmic pieces in honor of the
city’s bishop.
Cieco d’Adria, Il See GROTO, LUIGI
Cieza de León, Pedro (c. 1529–1554) Spanish
conquistador and chronicler of the conquest of Peru
Born in Extremadura, he spent the years 1535–50 in the
New World taking part in the conquest of the northern
Andes area (modern Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bo-
livia). This personal experience, augmented by interviews
with Indians and Spaniards, formed the basis of his ambi-
tious Crónica del Perú describing the encounter between
the conquistadores and the Incas. Only the first part, a ge-
ographical and ethnographical survey of the Andean
provinces, which he presented to Philip II in 1552, was
published in Cieza’s lifetime (1553).
Cigoli, Lodovico Cardi da (1559–1613) Italian painter
Born at Cigoli in Tuscany and brought up in the tradition
of Florentine MANNERISM, he was a pupil of Alessandro AL-
LORIand SANTI DI TITObut was more influenced by the
works of MICHELANGELO, PONTORMO, and ANDREA DEL
SARTO. After traveling in Lombardy he returned to Flo-
rence, where he painted a series of works for the Palazzo
Pitti at the request of the grand duke and frescoes for the
church of Sta. Maria Novella (1581–84); the latter mark
the transition from Mannerism to the BAROQUE. His best-
known work is the very fine painting for St. Peter’s in
Rome, St. Peter Healing the Lame Man at the Beautiful Gate
of the Temple. His pictures all comprise fervent ascetic
treatments of religious subjects, especially saints. Cigoli
died in Rome.Cimabue (Cenni di Peppi) (c. 1240–c. 1302) Italian
artist and mosaicist
Known by his nickname (meaning “bullheaded”),
Cimabue was trained in the Byzantine style but was rec-
ognized by later scholars, including GHIBERTIand VASARI—
the latter began his Lives with an account of Cimabue’s
career—as marking the divide between the art of the Mid-
dle Ages and that of the Renaissance.
Although little is known of his life, Cimabue was in
Rome in 1272, where he may have been influenced by the
developing realism of sculptural art, and in Pisa in 1302.
The only surviving work certainly attributed to Cimabue
is Christ in Glory, part of a large mosaic of St. John in the
apse of Pisa cathedral (c. 1302); other works probably by
him include the badly deteriorated frescoes in the upper
basilica at Assisi (c. 1290), the Sta. Trinità Madonna
(c. 1290; Uffizi, Florence), and the Madonna with Angels
(c. 1290–95; Louvre, Paris). These pieces are notable for
their combination of traditional Byzantine forms and a
new naturalism, seen particularly in his handling of
human figures. Another work, the Crucifix (c. 1290; Sta.
Croce, Florence), was badly damaged in the floods of- Cimabue’s approach was subsequently reflected in
and indeed eclipsed by the revolutionary paintings of
GIOTTO, who may have been Cimabue’s pupil, as evi-
denced by DANTEin his Divine Comedy, in which the
writer berates Cimabue for his pride and comments that
“now Giotto hath the cry.” Nonetheless, Cimabue is now
generally recognized as the first herald of the ideals of the
Renaissance and the most important artist in Italy before
Giotto.
Cima da Conegliano, Giovanni Battista (c. 1460–
1518) Italian painter
Born at Conegliano near Venice, Cima probably trained
under Bartolommeo MONTAGNAand later came under the
influence of the style of Giovanni BELLINI. His earliest au-
thenticated picture, an altarpiece now in the museum at
Vicenza (1489), demonstrates his control of color andCCiimmaa ddaa CCoonneegglliiaannoo,, GGiioovvaannnnii BBaattttiissttaa 1 10055