MANUTIUS(1505) and a Latin translation was published in
- Other early writers whose works on the ancient
Egyptian mysteries were known to the Renaissance in-
cluded PLOTINUSand Iamblichus, of whom Latin transla-
tions by Ficino appeared in 1492 and 1497 respectively.
Valeriano Bolzanio (c. 1443–1524) and his nephew
Piero (see VALERIANUS, PIERIUS) summed up in their re-
searches the state of Renaissance Egyptology in the mid-
16th century. Piero’s Hieroglyphica (Basle, 1556) is an
exhaustive account of contemporary speculation which
established connections between hieroglyphs and the
symbolism of medieval lapidaries and bestiaries. Increased
contact with Egypt in the later 16th century extended the
range of primary sources available and the re-erection in
Rome of the obelisks brought to the city in the time of the
empire—the obelisk of Caligula in St. Peter’s Square
(1586) and of Augustus in front of the Lateran Palace
(1588) are examples—provided a further stimulus to the
study of hieroglyphs (see also BEMBINE TABLE). Pietro della
Valle traveled extensively in the Levant (1614–26), bring-
ing back with him to Italy Egyptian mummies and Coptic
manuscripts. The learning of the whole period is summed
up in the three massive volumes of Athanasius Kircher’s
Oedipus Aegyptiacus... (Rome, 1652–54).
Eight of War See EIGHT SAINTS, WAR OF THE
Eight Saints, War of the (1375–78) A conflict between
Florence and its supporters on the one hand and the pa-
pacy on the other, over the secular power of the papacy in
central Italy. The war was ended by the compromise Peace
of Tivoli (1378). The threat the war posed to the security
of Rome prompted Gregory XI to end the papacy’s 70-year
exile in AVIGNON. The “saints” referred to were the eight
officials who exacted war taxes from the clergy, here con-
fused with the Eight of War (otto della guerra), who con-
ducted Florence’s military operations.
Eldorado (Spanish, “the gilded one”) The name given in
the early 16th century to a South American Indian ruler
believed to be located near Bogotá. According to legend,
he covered his body with gold dust for religious cere-
monies, then plunged into a sacred lake to wash while his
subjects threw gold and jewels into the water. From 1538
Spanish adventurers searched for him; they failed to find
his great treasure but the area they explored came under
Spanish rule. Later the quest shifted to the Orinoco and
Amazon valleys, and Eldorado came to mean a fabulously
rich country. Among the many who sought its gold were
Gonzalo Pizarro (in 1539), Francisco de Orellana (in
1541–42), and Sir Walter RALEIGH(in 1595 and 1617–18).
The legendary gold encouraged rapid exploration and
conquest of much of the Americas by Spain and other Eu-
ropean powers.
Further reading: Marc Aronson, Sir Walter Raleigh
and the Quest for El Dorado (Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mif-
flin, 2000).Elizabeth I (1533–1603) Queen of England and Ireland
(1558–1603)
The daughter of HENRY VIIIby his second wife, Anne Bo-
leyn, Elizabeth led an insecure life until her accession to
the throne. Her father had her mother beheaded, Elizabeth
was declared illegitimate (1536), and her sister, MARY I,
imprisoned her in the Tower of London (1554) on suspi-
cion of treason. Yet Elizabeth’s reign would prove one of
the most successful in English history. It saw the defeat of
Catholic Spain, a generally acceptable religious settle-
ment, rising prosperity, expansion overseas, a great liter-
ary age, and the emergence of England as a world power.
Elizabeth soon ended years of religious turmoil with
the establishment of a moderately Protestant Anglican
Church (see ELIZABETHAN SETTLEMENT). Attempts to re-
store Roman Catholicism continued, but Elizabeth had lit-
tle difficulty in thwarting various plots, such as the
NORTHERN REBELLION, to place her Catholic cousin, MARY,
Queen of Scots, on the throne of England. The pope had
excommunicated Elizabeth in 1570, but it was not until
after the execution of Mary on Elizabeth’s orders (1587)
that the SPANISH ARMADA was sent to invade England
(1588). The defeat of the Armada was a great triumph for
Elizabeth and her navy, confirming England’s status as a
great power.
Elizabeth never married, but used her eligibility as a
powerful weapon in diplomatic negotiations until she was
well into her fifties (see FRANCIS, DUKE OF ALENÇON). She
seems to have sincerely loved Robert Dudley, earl of
LEICESTER. Elizabeth always retained the affection of most
of her subjects, she managed the House of Commons
shrewdly, and she had the ability to choose her ministers
wisely; two of them in particular, William Cecil, Lord
Burghley (1520–98) and Francis Walsingham (1532–90),
were responsible for sound economic and administrative
reforms. Elizabeth was succeeded by her Stuart cousin,
JAMES Iof England and VI of Scotland.
Elizabeth’s record as a model Renaissance princess
must be seen in the light of the political and religious
stresses of her life and her ambivalent position as a woman
monarch. Educated alongside her younger brother, she
was taught Latin, French, and Italian, and later her step-
mother Catherine PARRoversaw her education. In her late
teens she had the advantage of having Roger ASCHAMas
her tutor. She made translations of classical authors, no-
tably Boethius, and also of French devotional poetry by
MARGUERITE DE NAVARRE. Elizabeth was herself a proficient
musician—the FITZWILLIAM VIRGINAL BOOKwas for many
years believed to have been her personal music book—
and in her reign the Chapel Royal employed some musi-
cians and composers of exceptional stature, among them115588 EEiigghhtt ooff WWaarr