largely retaining the sacramental and ceremonial character
of the Mass. CALVIN’s innovations were much more drastic,
emphasizing the ministry of the word (PREACHINGand
Bible readings) over that of the sacraments and encourag-
ing congregational psalm-singing by men and women to-
gether—a practice considered scandalous by Catholics.
The impact of both Lutheranism and Calvinism on
the music of public worship was profound. The trained
choirs and other musical resources of medieval cathedrals
and monasteries were mainly lost in the regions where the
Reformation took hold, but new developments compen-
sated for the loss. Luther himself led the way in the writ-
ing of new vernacular hymns to be sung by the
congregation (see HYMNODY). French, Swiss, English, and
Scottish adherents of Calvin disliked the use of nonscrip-
tural texts in worship and so promoted the composition of
metrical psalms in their respective vernaculars (see
PSALMODY).
Livy (Titus Livius) (59 BCE–17 CE) Roman historian
Livy was born at Patavium (Padua), but spent much of his
adult life in Rome, where he was befriended by Augustus.
He wrote the history of Rome Ab urbe condita (from the
foundation of the city) in 142 books, of which only books
1–10 and 21–45 survived complete into the Middle Ages
and so down to the present. The whole work was divided
into “decads” of 10 books, and the contents of the incom-
plete or missing decads are known from summaries.
Livy’s patriotism, idealization of the Roman republic,
and flair for description of characters and events recom-
mended him first to PETRARCH, who compiled from sepa-
rate manuscripts a text that brought together almost all
the surviving parts of Livy’s work. Lorenzo VALLA
emended the text (1448) and the first printed edition ap-
peared at Rome in about 1469. Livy’s appeal to students of
statecraft received its greatest tribute in MACHIAVELLI’s Dis-
corsi della prima deca di Tito Livio. Despite charges of
Patavinity (stylistic provincialisms), Livy was the ac-
knowledged model for Renaissance historians until sup-
planted in the later 16th century by TACITUS.
L’Obel, Matthias de (Matthias de Lobel, Lobelius)
(1538–1616) French botanist
L’Obel was born in Lille and studied at Montpellier under
Guillaume RONDELET, who at his death (1566) left him all
his papers. L’Obel moved to London with a fellow-student
from Montpellier, Pierre Pena, where they published
Stirpium Adversaria Nova (1570–71), and L’Obel was put
in charge of Lord Zouche’s physic garden. The printer
Christophe PLANTINenlarged and republished Pena’s and
L’Obel’s book as Nova Stirpium Adversaria (1576), follow-
ing it with Plantarum seu Stirpium Icones (1581); this was
illustrated by over 2,000 woodcuts arranged by L’Obel ac-
cording to his system of plant classification by the charac-
teristics of a plant’s leaves. L’Obel was William the Silent’s
personal physician (1581–84), and after the latter’s assas-
sination moved to Antwerp before a final move back to
England, where he was appointed (1607) James I’s royal
botanist (Botanicus Regius). He is commemorated in the
plant genus name Lobelia.Lodewycksz., Willem (before 1565–1604) Dutch
merchant
His date and place of birth are unknown. He sailed as a
merchant with the first Dutch fleet to attempt the Por-
tuguese sea route to Asia (1595–97). Lodewyckz. gathered
a great deal of material during their stay on Java, and on
his return published anonymously his Historie van Indien
(1598); illustrated with over 50 engravings after his own
sketches and immediately translated into Latin and
French, the book was an important source of information
on the East Indies. Lodewycksz. later commanded a fleet
to the Guinea Coast (1598–99) and then sailed again for
the East (1603), but died on the voyage.Lodge, Thomas (1558–1625) English author and
physician
A Londoner by birth, Lodge attended the Merchant Tay-
lors’ School there before going to Oxford and then study-
ing law. Samuel DANIEL, Michael DRAYTON, and Robert
GREENEwere among his literary friends. Lodge attempted
several genres: literary controversy in his Defence of Plays
(1580) against Stephen Gosson’s Schoole of Abuse (1579);
social criticism in An Alarum against Usurers (1584); verse
romance in Scillaes Metamorphosis (1589; reissued as
Glaucus and Scilla, 1610); pastoral romance in Rosalynde,
Euphues Golden Legacie (1590), which was a successful
exercise in EUPHUISMand was dramatized by Shakespeare
in As You Like It; poetry in Phillis (1593); the play The
Wounds of Civill War (1594); and satire in A Fig for Momus
(1595). He twice made long voyages, to the Canaries in
1585 and to South America in 1591–93; the latter resulted
in A Margarite of America (1596). Around this time he
converted to Roman Catholicism and began to study med-
icine, which he practiced successfully in London from- Apart from A Treatise of the Plague (1603), Lodge’s
later works are translations: of the Jewish historian Jo-
sephus (1602), SENECA(1614), and DU BARTAS(1625).
Lodi, Peace of A peace agreement signed at Lodi, near
Milan, between Milan and Venice in 1454. Later the same
year this was extended into a mutual nonaggression pact
to which Florence and, early in 1455, the papacy and
Naples also became parties. Despite periods of tension,
such as that arising from papal involvement in the PAZZI
CONSPIRACY, these five principal Italian powers in the
main kept the peace among themselves and their adher-
ents until the outbreak of generalized turmoil occasioned
by the French invasion of 1494 (see ITALY, WARS OF).22884 4 LLiivvyy