A more recent English edition is Allan H. Gilbert’s three-
volume Machiavelli: The Chief Works and Others (Durham,
N.C., 1965). The two-volume translation of the Discorsi
by Leslie Walker SJ (The Discourses of Niccolò Machiavelli
(London, 1950) was published as a Pelican Book in 1970
with an introduction by Bernard Crick, and later issued as
a Penguin Classic (1983). John R. Hale edited The Literary
Works of Machiavelli (Oxford, U.K., 1961).
Further reading: Sebastian de Grazia, Machiavelli in
Hell (New York and London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1989;
repr. 1994); Felix Raab, The English Face of Machiavelli: A
Changing Interpretation 1500–1700 (London: Routledge &
Kegan Paul, 1964); Quentin Skinner, Machiavelli (Oxford,
U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1981); Leo Strauss,
Thoughts on Machiavelli (Seattle, Wash.: University of
Washington Press, 1969; repr. University of Chicago
Press, 1995); Maurice Viroli (ed.), Machiavelli (Oxford,
U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1998).
Machuca, Pedro (died 1550) Spanish architect and
painter
Machuca became familiar with Italian Renaissance theo-
ries while studying in Italy. He returned to Spain in 1520.
He is best known for his design of the palace of Charles V
in the Alhambra at Granada, begun in 1531. This was the
first building of its kind in Spain, exhibiting many Italian
features and decorated in the mannerist style; it was never
completed. Other works included the coloring of a carved
reredos in Jaén cathedral, several altarpieces at Granada
(1521–49), and an early panel, the Madonna del Suffragio
(1517; Prado, Madrid), executed in Italy.
Madrid The capital city of Spain, situated on the central
Castilian plateau. At first a small Moorish town named
Majrit, Madrid was reconquered by the Christians in
- Although its first cortes was summoned in 1329 and
various monarchs spent some time in the city, Madrid only
became an important center in 1560 when PHILIP IIestab-
lished his court there. Madrid was chosen presumably be-
cause it was not associated with the historic divisions of
Spain. In 1607 Philip III made Madrid Spain’s official cap-
ital. Surviving landmarks include the town hall and the
Plaza Mayor from the early 17th century.
madrigal In the 14th century, a setting of a secular poem
of eight to eleven lines for two voices. In the 16th century
the genre re-emerged in Italy, and became the most popu-
lar secular form in the second half of the 16th century. The
16th-century madrigal was a freer musical form than its
predecessor and was generally for four or five voices. The
poetry of PETRARCHwas revived, used, and also imitated in
countless pieces. Two of the earliest exponents were
Philippe VERDELOTand Costanzo FESTA; madrigals by both
were published in 1530. Jacques ARCADELTpublished one
of the most popular madrigal collections in Venice; his
first book was reprinted around 40 times before the mid-
17th century. In it he uses imitative counterpoint and
chordal declamation according to the contour of the text.
Venice became an important center for the publica-
tion and composition of madrigals during the 1540s;
Adrian WILLAERTand his pupils composed madrigals in
which the form of the music is dictated by the text. In the
1550s declamation of the text remained important, re-
quiring a supple rhythm with a chordal texture; com-
posers started to experiment with harmonies, using
chromaticism to some effect. The influence of Willaert
and Ciprien de ROREremained strong; in the second half
of the 16th century composers all over Italy imitated
them, notably Andrea GABRIELIin Venice and Giaches de
WERTin Mantua. Gabrieli and other Venetian composers
wrote in a new style which was freer, polyphonically com-
plex, and of a light texture. From the 1580s Luca MAREN-
ZIOhelped to make Rome and Ferrara centers of madrigal
composition. As a new style of singing with great orna-
mentation, fostered in particular by the dukes of Ferrara,
became established, composers wrote virtuoso music full
of contrasts, both harmonic and textural.
In the 1590s another new style emerged, led by
Marenzio, LUZZASCHI, and Carlo GESUALDO, in which the
text was increasingly the master of the music; these texts
were almost always of great emotional intensity and as
such inspired the use of dissonance, bold harmonies and
rhythms, and unusual melodic leaps. In the early 1600s
these trends were taken still further by MONTEVERDI. The
compositions of composers active in Italy were imitated
throughout Europe. Philippe de MONTEwas one popular
and prolific composer of madrigals. Alfonso FERRABOSCO
composed madrigals in England in the 1560s and 1570s,
but it was not until the 1580s and 1590s that English com-
posers interested themselves in the genre. Thomas MOR-
LEY, Thomas WEELKES, and John WILBYEwrote with great
expressiveness, depicting dramatic contrasts in the text.
Further reading: Martha Feldman, City Culture and
the Madrigal at Venice (Berkeley, Calif.: University of Cali-
fornia Press, 1995); Anthony Newcomb, The Madrigal at
Ferrara, 1579–1597, 2 vols (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton
University Press, 1980).Madrigal, Alfonso de (c. 1400–1455) Spanish philoso-
pher and theologian
Often referred to as “el Tostado,” after his father Alfonso
Tostado, Madrigal was born at Madrigal de la Sierra, Ávila,
and first taught at Salamanca. He later went to Rome,
where he came to the notice of Pope Eugenius IV. He en-
tered the Carthusian Order at the Scala Dei monastery in
Catalonia, but King John II of Castile persuaded him to
leave the contemplative life and secured his appointment
as bishop of Ávila. He is one of 24 eminent men at the
court of Henry IV who are memorialized in the Libro de los
claros varones de Castilla (Book of the famous men of22994 4 MMaacchhuuccaa,, PPeeddrroo