He also wrote in Polish on the benefits of theocracy (1563,
1564). His history of Poland from the reign of Sigismund
I was published posthumously (1611). Orzechoswki’s vig-
orous prose style was important in the development of
vernacular prose writing.
Osiander, Andreas (1498–1552) German Protestant
theologian
After studying in Ingolstadt and being ordained (1520),
Osiander returned to Nuremberg, near which he had been
born, and became a leading figure in the local reforming
movement. He represented the city at both the Colloquy
of MARBURG(1529) and the Diet of AUGSBURG(1530), and
was one of the original signatories of the Schmalkaldic Ar-
ticles (1537). Forced to leave Nuremberg by the imposi-
tion of the AUGSBURG INTERIM(1548), Osiander settled in
Königsberg, where he became professor at the newly
founded university. His controversial views on justifica-
tion (De iustificatione, 1550) brought him into conflict
with Philipp MELANCHTHONand were eventually repudi-
ated by the Lutherans in the Formula of CONCORD(1577).
His other writings include a revised edition of the Latin
Vulgate and a harmony of the gospels, the first of its kind.
His niece Margaret married Thomas CRANMER.
ottava rima An Italian stanza form usually comprising
eight lines of eleven syllables each, rhyming abababcc. Its
virtues as a vehicle for narrative were most amply demon-
strated by Ariosto’s ORLANDO FURIOSO. It was adopted into
English in the 16th century using the English five-stress
(decasyllabic) line, often with a feminine rhyme. One of
the earliest practitioners was Michael DRAYTON, who, on
rewriting his Mortimeriados (1596) as The Barrons Warres
(1603), changed the seven-line stanza of the former to ot-
tava rima and observed “this sort of stanza hath in it
majesty, perfection, and solidity.”
Ottoman Turks A Turkic people who migrated from cen-
tral Asia to Asia Minor, where they adopted Islam. They
took their name from their first sultan, Osman (ruled
c. 1288–1326), who founded a state in Anatolia, bordering
on Christian territory. At this time they adopted the con-
cept of jihad (holy war to extend Islam). As the Renais-
sance developed in Italy the Ottomans established their
first settlement in Europe (1354) and took Adrianople in
Thrace (1361). From Thrace they advanced to conquer
the Balkans, overrunning Bulgaria (1382), Serbia (1459),
most of Greece (1461), and Bosnia (1463). Taking advan-
tage of the Byzantine empire’s weakness, they occupied
the eastern Mediterranean and conquered CONSTANTINO-
PLEitself (1453), which became the Ottoman capital. By
the early 16th century they had conquered Persia, Syria,
and Egypt, and Suleiman (I) the Magnificent (sultan
1520–66) took the jihad into the heart of Europe. He cap-
tured Belgrade (1521) and, after crushing the Christian
army at Mohács (1526), occupied most of Hungary. By
1529 the Ottoman forces had reached the gates of Vienna,
but they returned to Constantinople after a short siege. Al-
though the main expansionist drive of the Ottomans to
the northwest was now over, Renaissance Europe re-
mained aware of them as a constant threat on its eastern
and southern flanks, to be contained by crusading ven-
tures such as the battle of LEPANTO(1571). Another highly
significant victory for Christendom was the heroic repulse
of the Ottoman fleet by the KNIGHTS HOSPITALERon Malta
after a dramatic siege in 1565, thus denying the Turks an
invaluable foothold in the western Mediterranean, though
they were still able to make a nuisance of themselves at sea
through the activities of Barbary pirates operating out of
ports on the North African coast. In 1683 Ottoman troops
again reached the gates of Vienna, but were repulsed by
the Christian forces.
Further reading: Jerry Brotton, The Renaissance
Bazaar: From the Silk Road to Michelangelo (Oxford, U.K.:
Oxford University Press, 2002); Lisa Jardine and Jerry
Brotton, Global Interests: Renaissance Art Between East and
West (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2000).Overbury, Sir Thomas (1581–1613) English courtier
and prose writer
Overbury was born at Compton Scorpion, Warwickshire,
and educated at Oxford before becoming a member of the
Middle Temple (1597). Robert Carr, Earl of Somerset, was
his friend and patron, but when Overbury opposed the
earl’s marriage with the divorced countess of Essex, he was
imprisoned in the Tower of London on a trumped-up
charge and slowly poisoned by the countess’s agents. The
murder came to light and at the ensuing trial, for which
the prosecution was conducted by Francis BACON, the earl
and countess were found guilty and condemned to house
arrest; four of their accomplices were hanged. Apart from
his lead role in “the Overbury Affair,” Overbury is re-
membered as a writer of “characters”; these are a subform
of the essay evolved by the third-century BCEGreek
Theophrastus and comprise short and vivid descriptions
of various human types and their characteristic behavior.
Further reading: Alastair Bellamy, The Politics of
Court Scandal in Early Modern England: News Culture and
the Overbury Affair 1603–60 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge
University Press, 2003); Anne Somerset, Unnatural Murder
at the Court of James I (London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson,
1997).Oviedo y Valdés, Gonzalo Fernández de (1478–
1557) Spanish soldier, administrator, and historian
Born in Madrid and brought up as a page in the royal
household, Oviedo was present at the siege of Granada in- He went to Panama in 1514 as overseer of the gold
mines there, later becoming governor of Cartagena (1526)
and holding a succession of official posts before returning
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