Arminianism A moderate reformed theology named
after the Dutch theologian Jacob Arminius (1560–1609).
With its insistence upon free will and the denial of the
concepts of PREDESTINATIONand irresistible grace, Armini-
anism was anti-Calvinistic and in Holland found expres-
sion in the sect of REMONSTRANTS, whose doctrines were
set out in the Remonstrance of 1610. Suspected of pro-
Spanish sympathies, the Dutch Arminians suffered bitter
persecution after the Calvinists’ triumph at the Synod of
DORT(1618–19).
“Arminianism” was also the name used by English
Puritans to describe the doctrines of William Laud who,
like the Dutch Arminians, adopted an explicitly anti-
Calvinistic policy. As bishop of London (1628–33) and,
from 1633, archbishop of Canterbury, Laud dominated re-
ligious affairs in England throughout Charles I’s reign.
“Laudianism,” as it is more accurately described, empha-
sized the importance of vestments, ceremony, and decora-
tion in church, and ruled that the communion table
should be transferred to the east end; it also enhanced the
authority of the clergy over the laity.
Further reading: Hugh Trevor-Roper, Catholics, Angli-
cans and Puritans (London: Secker & Warburg, 1987).
armor Body protection for soldiers in the 14th century
saw a general trend away from the use of mail and towards
the use of plate. In Scandinavia and eastern Europe lamel-
lar armor composed of small plates laced or riveted to-
gether became widespread; it was worn under a leather
jerkin. Elsewhere soldiers increasingly wore pieces of
solid plate strapped onto their mail hauberks or attached
to the inside of a leather jerkin to protect vulnerable joints
and limbs. For mounted soldiers, whose legs were an easy
target for foot soldiers, plate leg protection was evolved,
comprising sabaton (foot), greave (shin), poleyn (knee),
and cuisse (thigh) sections. By the end of the century ar-
morers were attaching the pieces of limb protection to
each other by metal strips known as lames, rather than to
another garment. Leather straps and loose riveting pro-
vided the necessary flexibility. Armorers also began to
demonstrate their skill in designing surfaces curved in
such a way as to deflect an enemy’s weapon point away
from vulnerable body areas.
Two distinct styles in western European armor
emerged during the 15th century—the Italian and the
German. Italian armor is characterized by smoothness and
roundness in the modeling of the individual pieces. Milan
was an important center of manufacture (see MISSAGLIA
FAMILY). The German style, more angular and spiky, is
often referred to as “Gothic”; its main centers of manufac-
ture were Innsbruck, Nuremberg, and Augsburg. These
differences are exemplified in two common forms of head
protection: the smooth cylindrical shape of the Italian bar-
but, based on ancient Greek helmet designs, and the
prominent projections of the German sallet with its
aarrmmoorr 3311ventailbeaver
neck-guardpouldronbreastplateelbow-copvambracefald
tassetcuissegreavesolleretbowljugulargorgetlance-restrerebracetacesgauntletknee-copArmorThis late 15th-century suit of Italian plate armor
covers the entire body. During the late 15th century and the
early 16th century the art of the armorer reached its peak.pointed neck guard. However, as both countries exported
armor and armorers (HENRY VIIIemployed first Italians
and then, from 1515, Germans in his Greenwich work-
shops) elements from both soon blended in European
armor.
In Germany in the early 16th century the armorers’
craft received strong encouragement from the informed
patronage of Emperor MAXIMILIAN I. Among the famous
makers who worked for Maximilian and his successors
were the SEUSENHOFER FAMILYof Innsbruck and the HELM-
SCHMIED FAMILYof Augsburg. Maximilian’s name is associ-
ated with the type of ridged plate that represented the
most advanced scientific design attained in European
armor, combining strength and flexibility to a marked ex-
tent. A curious vagary in this period was the attempt to re-