with his grandsons (1546; Museo Nazionale, Naples); the
group poignantly captures the tension between the frail
elderly pope, the scheming Ottavio, and the indifferent
Alessandro (see FARNESE FAMILY). The charming portrait of
two-year-old Clarice Strozzi (1542) shows a very different
aspect of Titian’s abilities. In the 1550s he also painted
several portraits of his daughter Lavinia and a self-portrait
now in Berlin.
Although Titian’s output of portraits, and religious,
mythological, and historical paintings was aided, particu-
larly in his declining years, by numerous assistants in his
Venetian studio—Vasari, who visited Titian in 1566, de-
scribes their practice—the quantity and quality of the
work he produced throughout his long life is astonishing.
His last painting was a Pietà (1576; Accademia, Venice) in-
tended for his own tomb in the Frari. He left it unfinished
and it was completed by PALMA GIOVANE.
Further reading: Bruce Cole, Titian and Venetian
Painting, 1450–1590 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press,
1999); Rona Goffen, Titian’s Women (New Haven, Conn.:
Yale University Press, 1997); Charles Hope, Titian (Lon-
don: Jupiter Books, 1980); Filippo Pedrocco, Titian
(Milan, Italy: Rizzoli, 2001).
Toledo A city in south central Spain, by the River Tagus.
Toledo was a Roman colony (founded 193 BCE), a Visigoth
capital, and an important Moorish city (712–1085). After
the Christian reconquest (1085) Toledo was a great Castil-
ian city where Arabs, Jews, and Christians met; it was
known for its Hebrew studies until the expulsion of the
Jews in the late 15th century. Despite its part in the revolt
of the COMUNEROS(1520–21) Toledo was a favorite resi-
dence of King Charles I of Spain (Emperor CHARLES V).
When PHILIP IImade Madrid his capital (1560) Toledo’s
importance declined, but it continued to prosper from its
cloth and silk industries and the manufacture of fine steel
goods, notably swords.
During the Renaissance the great Catholic reformer,
Cardinal XIMÉNES, was archbishop of Toledo and an im-
portant patron of scholarship. El GRECOlived in Toledo
from 1577 until his death in 1614. Notable buildings in-
clude the Moorish quarter, the cathedral (1226–1493), the
monastery of San Juan de los Reyes and the Casa de la
Santa Hermandad (both built in the late 15th and 16th
centuries), and the Alcázar (begun 1531), with its facade
by Juan de HERRERA.
Tolomei, Claudio (1492–1556) Italian writer
Tolomei was born in Siena but was banished in 1526 be-
cause of his association with the Medici. He was later re-
called and achieved high political office in the city.
Tolomei is chiefly known for two dialogues, Il Polito
(1525) and Il Cesano (1555) in which he discusses the
phonology of the Tuscan language, the relation between
speech and text, and the origins of language. In his poetry
he applied classical metrical forms to vernacular verse
(Versi e regole della nuova poesia toscana, 1539). His letters
were published in seven books (1547).Tomkins, Thomas (1572–1656) English composer
Tomkins received his early musical education at St.
David’s cathedral, Pembrokeshire. He was sent to London
in 1594 to study with William BYRD, and in 1596 he was
appointed organist and choirmaster of Worcester cathe-
dral, a post he held until 1646 when the Civil War brought
an end to choral services there. He graduated in music at
Oxford in 1607, and became a Gentleman of the Chapel
Royal in 1617 and its organist in 1621. The most impor-
tant collection of his compositions is the posthumous Mu-
sica Deo Sacra (1668). He also published a volume of
madrigals entitled Songs (1622).Topsell, Edward (1572–1625) English naturalist
Little is known of Topsell’s life other than that he was a
clergyman and held a number of livings in southeast Eng-
land. His interest in zoology appears to have been stimu-
lated by the need to identify the various animals referred
to in the Bible. The result of his researches was his Histo-
rie of Four-footed Beastes (1607) and Historie of Serpents
(1608). Both works are entirely uncritical and derivative;
they are, nonetheless, the first illustrated natural history
works to be published in English.
See also: ZOOLOGYTordesillas, Treaty of (June 7, 1494) The agreement be-
tween Portugal and Spain intended to settle conflicting
claims in the New World and to exclude other rivals. In
1493 Pope ALEXANDER VIestablished a line of demarcation
from pole to pole 100 leagues west of the Cape Verde is-
lands. Portugal was to have the monopoly of exploration
to the east of the line and Spain to the west, but neither
should occupy territories already under Christian rule.
Portugal was understandably dissatisfied; after prolonged
negotiations the Portuguese and Spanish ambassadors
agreed on the Treaty of Tordesillas, which confirmed the
papal idea of demarcation but moved the line 270 leagues
further west. This enabled Portugal to claim Brazil when
CABRALlanded there (1500). Pope JULIUS IIapproved the
treaty in 1506.Torquemada, Tomás de (1420–1498) Spanish Do-
minican inquisitor
As confessor to the Spanish monarchs FERDINAND(II) AND
ISABELLA I, Torquemada, himself born of Jewish descent in
Valladolid, encouraged them to attack openly practicing
Jews and CONVERSOS. In 1478 the queen persuaded Pope
Sixtus IV to unify the inquisitions of Castile and Aragon
under Torquemada’s control, giving him power to appoint,
dismiss, and hear appeals from other inquisitors. He orga-
nized the SPANISH INQUISITIONunder five territorial tri-44666 6 TToolleeddoo