countless Renaissance imitations in Latin and in the ver-
naculars. Theocritus, who was virtually rediscovered in
the early 15th century, and Virgil together laid the foun-
dations of the PASTORAL.
The Georgics are four didactic poems, also in hexam-
eters, on the subject of farming. They deal respectively
with the cultivation of crops, the growing of trees, cattle
rearing, and beekeeping. The Georgics had fewer Renais-
sance admirers, but among them was Girolamo FRACAS-
TORO, who imitated them in his Syphilis. One reason for
the comparative lack of enthusiasm for the Georgics was
Aristotle’s strictures on didactic poetry, aired particularly
by Lodovico CASTELVETRO.
The Aeneid was the virtually unchallenged model for
a national EPICin the Renaissance, greatly preferred to
HOMERby, among others, VIDAand Julius Caesar SCALIGER.
The text known to the Renaissance was generally supple-
mented by a 13th book, added in 1427 by Maffeo VEGIO.
Finding an adequate meter to reproduce the dignity and
power of Virgil’s Latin hexameters was one of the major
tasks of his translators and imitators.
Vischer family A family of sculptors and bronze
founders in Nuremberg, Germany. The foundry was
started in 1453 by Hermann the Elder (died 1488), whose
most important work was the bronze font (1457) in the
Stadtkirche, Wittenberg. His son Peter the Elder (c.
1460–1529), the most renowned member of the family,
gave the foundry its wide reputation. A gifted sculptor, he
made many of the models for his work himself. He worked
in the late Gothic naturalistic style with a touch of
classicism, which was apparent, for example, in the
monument of Archbishop Ernst of Saxony in Magdeburg
cathedral (1494–95). To him is attributed the “Bough-
Breaker” (1490; Munich), a key work of German bronze
sculpture because of its early three-dimensionality and
interest in movement. Another important work was the
pair of bronze statues of Theodoric and King Arthur for
the tomb of Emperor Maximilian I at Innsbruck (1513).
Peter’s most famous work is the large and impressive
reliquary shrine of St. Sebald for the church of St. Sebald
in Nuremberg, erected in 1519. Peter was assisted in this
by his talented sons who carried on the foundry, Hermann
the Younger (c. 1486–1517), Peter the Younger (1487–
1528), and Hans (c. 1489–1550). The first two visited
Italy (c. 1512–15), and Italian influence is apparent in
their work, including the St. Sebald shrine. The design of
the whole structure and the main figures of the apostles
are still essentially Gothic, but much of the decoration is
mannerist, including a profusion of biblical, mythological,
and allegorical figures. Hermann cast many funeral
monuments, including the tomb of Elisabeth and
Hermann VIII of Henneberg at Römhild (probably after
1507). Peter produced medals and plaques in a full-blown
Renaissance style, as well as monuments. Hans’s work
includes reliefs for the Fugger chapel in Augsburg
(1537–40). Hans’s son Georg (1520–92) was a maker of
small decorative items in bronze.Visconti family A family predominant in Milan from the
late 13th century. The careers of Ottone Visconti (1207–
95; archbishop of Milan, 1262–95), who ousted the rival
della Torre family, and his great-nephew Matteo (captain
of the people, 1287–1302; imperial vicar, 1311–22) were
the basis of the Visconti family fortunes. In 1349 the
council of the commune bestowed upon Matteo’s heirs the
perpetual title of Signore. Despite papal opposition, they
extended their lands and influence throughout Lombardy
and Piedmont. The height of Visconti power came under
Giangaleazzo (1351–1402), who succeeded his father
Galeazzo II (c. 1321–78) in the western part of the family’s
lands in 1378 and ousted his uncle, Bernabò (1323–85),
from the remainder in 1385. He was made duke of Milan
in 1395, and by his death only Florence stood out against
Visconti overlordship of northern Italy. Giangaleazzo was
succeeded by his weak son Giovanni Maria (1388–1412;
duke, 1402–12); after a troubled reign, during which he
relied heavily on the support of Facino CANEand his
condottieri, he was succeeded by his brother, Filippo Maria
(1392–1447; duke, 1412–47), who restored Visconti
power, but was thwarted in his dreams of wider expansion
by Florence and Venice in a war that lasted from 1423 to- Increasing reliance upon condottieri in his later
years did not prevent his suffering heavy territorial losses,
including that of Genoa, which he had seized in 1412. He
produced no male heirs and at his death the line was
extinguished. Power passed briefly to the AMBROSIAN
REPUBLIC, and then (1450) to Filippo Maria’s son-in-law,
Francesco SFORZA. See family tree overleaf.
Vitoria, Fray Francisco de (c. 1483–1546) Spanish
theologian
He may have been born at Burgos, where, having entered
the Dominican Order (c. 1502), he studied at the convent
of San Pablo, before going to Paris in 1506. There he was
ordained priest (1509), taught arts and philosophy
(1512–17), and became a doctor of theology (1523). After
lecturing on theology at Valladolid (1523–26), he was ap-
pointed to the first chair of theology at Salamanca, where
he reformed theological studies by his changes to the cur-
riculum and his insistence upon a humanistic approach to
the subject. Melchior CANOwas among his pupils. His
Relectiones (1557, 1565, 1604) covered many of the moral
questions of the time, including the conquest of the Amer-
ican Indians (he was critical of Spanish methods) and the
concept of a just war (war is only held to be justifiable if
undertaken to redress a wrong already inflicted).VViittoorriiaa,, FFrraayy FFrraanncciissccoo ddee 4 49955