About 3000 BCE, a second civilization grew up along another river valley, this time the valley of the
Nile River in present-day Egypt. In contrast to the unpredictable waters of the Tigris–Euphrates, those
of the Nile overflowed once annually, discharging an amount of water that usually varied little from
one year to the next. As in Mesopotamia, irrigation projects to channel floodwaters led to the
organization of the community and ultimately to the development of political structures. Although
several major cities emerged along the Nile, most Egyptian communities were agricultural villages
engaged in local trade along the Nile.
The king of Egypt, or pharaoh , wielded considerable power. About 2700 BCE, the pharaohs
began the construction of huge pyramids that served as tombs for themselves and their families.
These tombs were decorated with colorful paintings. Like the Sumerians, the Egyptians were
polytheists , or worshippers of many gods. Their belief in an afterlife led to the practice of
mummification to preserve the bodies of pharaohs and, later, those of members of lower classes.
Egyptian society was composed of a number of defined social classes. Within this social structure,
however, commoners could enter government service and rise in social status. Egyptian families
were patriarchal, with men dominating households and community life. Among the royalty, however,
women sometimes acted as regents for young rulers or as priestesses. Other educated women worked
as scribes for the Egyptian government.
The Egyptians did not acquire the use of bronze tools and weapons until long after they had
reached Mesopotamia. From the Nubian kingdom of Kush, a site of the independent innovation of
ironworking, the Egyptians acquired iron implements.
The Egyptians engaged in some trade with the people of Mesopotamia and later with the kingdom
of Kush to the south. Some historians believe that Egyptian picture writing, or hieroglyphics , was
developed from Sumerian cuneiform as a result of trade contacts with Mesopotamia. Cultural
diffusion from Egypt produced a Nubian civilization that incorporated Egyptian pyramids, writing,
and religion into its own culture. In addition, the Nubian kingdom of Kush invaded Egypt in the eighth
century BCE and ruled the Egyptian people for about a century. Throughout most of its early history,
however, surrounding deserts protected Egypt from contact with invading peoples, permitting its
civilization to develop its own, unique characteristics.
Indus Valley Civilization
By 2500 BCE, another advanced civilization had emerged along the Indus River in present-day
Pakistan. Like the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the Indus River was noted for its unpredictable and
often violent pattern of flooding. Among the urban centers that arose along the Indus were Harappa
and Mohenjo-Daro. Streets in both cities were laid out along a precise grid, and houses boasted
running water and sewage systems.
Much of what historians know about the Indus valley civilization must come from archeological
discoveries, because Harappan writing has yet to be deciphered. Archeological findings of Harappan
artifacts in Mesopotamia indicate active trade between the peoples of the Indus valley and Sumer by
way of the Persian Gulf. Around 1500 BCE, the Harappan civilization was overtaken by a group of
Indo-European peoples called Aryans. The Harappan civilization which the Aryans conquered had
already declined markedly, perhaps as a result of rivers changing their course or a natural disaster
such as an earthquake. The blend of the traditional culture of the Indus valley people and that of the
Aryans had a profound effect on the future course of Indian history.