(^280) › STEP 5. Build Your Test-Taking Confidence
Specific Examples:
- The “Representatives of the Nation” rhetoric of
the French Revolution from 1789 to 1799 - The wave of Liberal Nationalist revolutions from
1820 to 1848, including Spain (1820–1823), Sicily
and Piedmont (1821), Greece (1829), Belgium
(1830), France (1830), and all of Europe in 1848
Topic Sentence B: From 1866 to 1945, the conserva-
tive tendencies of nationalism came to the fore and
beliefs in the value of historical traditions and heavily
mythologized dreams of past national glories fueled
conservative-led movements of national unification
and empire building.
Specific Examples:- The unification of Italy under Cavour and King
Victor Emmanuel II - The unification of Germany under Bismarck and
Kaiser Wilhelm I of Prussia - The rise of fascist movements in the 1920s and
1930s - The NSDAP’s rise to power in Germany and the
popularity of Hitler’s ultranationalist rhetoric
Question 2: Compare the context in which scientific
work was done in the seventeenth century with the
context in which scientific work was done in the
nineteenth century.
Thesis: In the seventeenth century, scientific work
was done in the context of both the Church and new,
secular institutions that were just beginning to offer
greater intellectual freedom. In the nineteenth century,
scientific work was done almost exclusively in secular
institutions that tended to foster materialist theories.
Topic Sentence A1: In the seventeenth century,
scientific work was done in both the traditional
Church-related institution and in new secular
institutions.
Specific Examples:
Science in Church institutions:- Jesuit astronomers in Italian universities
- Isaac Newton in Cambridge
Science in new secular institutions: - Royal courts, such as the Court of Cosimo de
Medici in Florence- Royal societies and academies, such as the Royal
Society of London - Smaller, independent academies, such as the
Neoplatonic Academy in Florence
Topic Sentence A2: The kind of scientific work (or
natural philosophy, as it was termed in the seven-
teenth century) that was produced in the tension
between Church and secular institutions tended to
be a blend of traditional thinking in terms of God’s
purpose and newer thinking that emphasized natural
laws and quantifiable, mechanical forces.
Specific Examples: - Galileo’s retention of the traditional, Aristotelian
concept of uniform circular motion, combined
with his emphasis on direct observation of
heavenly bodies and the quantification of their
orbits. - Newton’s introduction of the concept of force and
his quantification of the force of universal gravita-
tion, together with his retention of a belief in an
active God in the universe.
- Royal societies and academies, such as the Royal
Topic Sentence B1: In the nineteenth century, scientific
work was done almost exclusively in secular institutions.
Specific Examples:- Secular universities, such as the University of
Edinburgh and the University of London replaced
Cambridge and Oxford as hubs of science in
Britain. - The British Association for the Advancement of
Science displaced the Royal Society of London.
Topic Sentence B2: In the new secular context of
the nineteenth century, materialist theories replaced
more orthodox theories of divine forces and plans.
Specific Examples:- Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection
replaced Paley’s theory of natural theology and
divine design. - Huxley’s Physical Basis of Life supplanted vital force
theories.
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