The Challenge of the Renaissance (^) ‹ 61
Whereas medieval art had been characterized by religious subject matter, the
Renaissance style took from its Greek and Roman forebears the human being and the
human form as its subject. The transition can be seen in the series of frescos painted by
Giotto in the fourteenth century. Although he still focused on religious subject matter (i.e.,
the life of St. Francis), Giotto depicted the human characters in realistic detail and with a
concern for their psychological reaction to the events of St. Francis’s life. The Renaissance
artist’s concern for the human form in all its complexity is illustrated by two great sculp-
tures, each nominally depicting the biblical character of David:
• One is Donatello’s version (completed in 1432), which was the first life-size, free-
standing, bronze nude sculpture since antiquity, and which depicts David as a young
Florentine gentleman. Goliath was understood to be the Papacy.
• The second version was sculpted by Michelangelo Buonarroti (completed in 1504) and
is characteristic of the last and most idealistic phase of Renaissance art. Sculpted from a
single piece of marble, Michelangelo’s David is larger than life and offers a vision of the
human body and spirit that is more dramatic than real life, an effect that Michelangelo
produced by making the head and hands deliberately too large for the torso. Upon its
completion, the rulers of Florence originally placed Michelangelo’s David at the entrance
to the city hall as a symbol of Florentine strength.
Not to be overlooked is the introduction of the printing press, which allowed more
rapid dissemination of ideas, and the use of the vernacular language, which gave access to
documents, fiction, and religious texts to a growing audience.
The Renaissance and Scientific Advancements
Using a scientific method, or proceeding through the stages of hypothesis, observation,
experimentation, and replication, individuals like Copernicus and Galileo challenged the
accepted wisdom of the day by developing the heliocentric (“sun-centered”) vision of the
universe. Physicians followed a similar form of inquiry and used anatomical studies as well
to put to rest the idea that human health was governed by the four humors. Such advances
often contradicted Church teachings and led to punishment (including excommunication)
of early scientists.The Spread of the Renaissance
In the late fifteenth century and throughout the sixteenth century, the Renaissance spread
to France, Germany, England, and Spain. The catalyst for this spread was the breakup of
the equilibrium that characterized the politics of the Italian peninsula. An internal balance
of power had been established by the Treaty of Lodi (1454–1455), which brought Milan,
Naples, Florence, Venice, and the Papal States into a mutual defense alliance. The balance
of power was shattered in 1494, when Naples, supported by both Florence and the pope,
prepared to attack Milan. The Milanese despot, Ludovico il Moro, appealed to the French
king, Charles VIII of France, for help, inviting him to lead French troops into Italy and to
revive his old dynastic claims to Naples, which the French had ruled from 1266 to 1435.
French troops invaded the Italian peninsula in 1494 and forced Florence, Naples, and the
Papal States to make major concessions. In response, the pope and the Venetians persuaded
the Holy Roman Emperor, King Ferdinand of Aragon, to bring troops to Italy to help resist10_Bartolini_Ch10_057_064.indd 61 27/04/18 1:54 PM