154 ❯ Step 4. Review the Knowledge You Need to Score High
- Deep processing—semantic encoding involves forming an association or attaching
meaning to a sensory impression and results in longer-lasting memories.
Self-reference effect or self-referent encoding—processing information deemed
important or relevant more deeply, making it easier to recall.- Atkinson-Shiffrin model: Three memory systems—sensory, short term, and long term.
Sensory memory—memory system that holds external events from the senses for up
to a few seconds.- Visual encoding—the encoding of picture images.
- Iconic memory—a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli.
- Acoustic encoding—the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words.
- Echoic memory—a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli.
- Selective attention—the focusing of awareness on stimuli in sensory memory that
facilitates its encoding into STM. - Automatic processing—unconscious encoding of information about space, time,
and frequency that occurs without interfering with our thinking about other things. - Parallel processing—a natural mode of information processing that involves several
information streams simultaneously. - Effortful processing—encoding that requires our attention and conscious effort.
- Feature extraction (pattern recognition)—finding a match for new raw informa-
tion in sensory storage by actively searching through long-term memory.
Short-term memory (STM)—working memory, 20 seconds before forgotten; capac-
ity of seven plus or minus two items.- Rehearsal—conscious repetition of information to either maintain information in
STM or to encode it for storage. - Maintenance rehearsal—repetition that keeps information in STM about 20 seconds.
- Elaborative rehearsal—repetition that creates associations between the new
memory and existing memories stored in LTM. - Chunking—grouping information into meaningful units increasing the capacity of
STM. - Mnemonic devices—memory tricks or strategies to make information easier to
remember. - Method of loci—uses visualization with familiar objects on a path to recall infor-
mation in a list. - Peg word system—uses association of terms to be remembered with a memorized
scheme (“One is a bun, two is.. .”).
Long-term memory (LTM)—relatively permanent storage with unlimited capacity,
LTM is subdivided into explicit (declarative) memory and implicit memory. - Explicit memory (declarative)—memory of facts and experiences that one
consciously knows and can verbalize. Explicit memory is subdivided into semantic